Densified biomass products containing pretreated biomass fibers

ABSTRACT

A product is provided comprising at least one densified biomass particulate having a substantially smooth, non-flakey outer surface and containing no added binder, wherein said densified biomass particulate is comprised of a plurality of pretreated lignin-coated plant biomass fibers which contain a trace amount of base from pretreatment of said fibers. Methods for using and making the product are also described.

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/202,011 (hereinafter “'011 Application”) filed on Aug. 17, 2011, which application is a U.S. National Stage Filing under 35 U.S.C. 371 from International Application No. PCT/US2010/046525, filed Aug. 24, 2010, and published in English as WO 2011/028543 on Mar. 10, 2011, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. 119 (e) of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/236,403 filed on Aug. 24, 2009, which applications and publications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under DE-FG36-08-G088073 and DE-FC02-07ER64494 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

Primary bio fuels produced today are based on corn and other grains, transesterified biodiesel from oilseed crops, such as soybeans and animal fats. Ethanol production from grains is currently the mainstay of the ethanol industry. Increasingly, however, there is a demand for cellulosic based biofuels. The inventors recognize the need for economically providing pretreated densified biomass products for use in a variety of applications.

SUMMARY

In one embodiment, a product is provided, comprising at least one hydrolysable densified biomass particulate (hereinafter “densified biomass particulate) having no added binder and comprised of a plurality of lignin-coated plant biomass fibers, wherein the at least one densified biomass particulate has a substantially smooth, non-flakey outer surface. In one embodiment, the novel product contains trace amounts of ammonia. In one embodiment, the product comprises one or more densified biomass particulates, each particulate having no added binder and an amount of lignin-coated plant biomass fiber sufficient to form a densified biomass particulate.

In one embodiment, the at least one densified biomass particulate having no added binder has an increased resistance to deformation, an increased hardness, an increased resistance to degradation, an improved shelf life, or a combination thereof, as compared with a binder-containing densified biomass particulate. In one embodiment, the novel product is more able to resist stress and is likely less brittle as compared to a binder-containing densified biomass particulate.

In one embodiment, the novel product is harder, such as at least 21% harder, with at least 20% less variability in hardness than a binder-containing densified biomass particulate of the same given mass.

The novel products described herein can be any suitable shape and size, including, for example, substantially cubic, substantially rectangular or substantially cylindrical.

In one embodiment, each of the plurality of lignin-coated plant biomass fibers is coated completely with lignin. In one embodiment, at least some of the plurality of lignin-coated biomass fibers are also coated with hemicellulose. In one embodiment, most of the plurality of lignin-coated plant biomass fibers are also coated with hemicellulose. In one embodiment, substantially all of the plurality of lignin-coated plant biomass fibers are also coated with hemicellulose, such that the hemicelluloses and lignin appear on the surface in a “package” rather than as separate components.

Any suitable plant biomass may be used to produce the novel products described herein, including, but not limited to, corn stover, switchgrass, pine and/or prairie cord grass.

In one embodiment, a plurality of densified biomass particulates is provided, having an improved shelf life, increased resistance to degradation, increased flowability, and greater bulk density as compared to a plurality of binder-containing densified biomass particulates.

In one embodiment, a packaged product is provided comprising a container; and a quantity of densified biomass particulates having no added binder and located within the container is provided, wherein the quantity of densified biomass particulates has a bulk density at greater than a bulk density of an identical quantity of binder-containing densified biomass particulates. The container may be a rigid container or a flexible bag.

In one embodiment, an integrated process is provided comprising subjecting a quantity of biomass fibers to an ammonia pretreatment, wherein at least a portion of lignin contained within each fiber is moved to an outer surface of each fiber to produce a quantity of tacky (i.e., sticky to the touch) biomass fibers; and densifying the quantity of tacky biomass fibers to produce one or more densified biomass particulates is provided, wherein the quantity of tacky biomass fibers is densified without adding binder. In one embodiment the ammonia pretreatment causes at least a portion of hemicellulose contained within each fiber to move to the outer surface of each fiber. In one embodiment, the ammonia pretreatment is an ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX™) pretreatment, such as a gaseous AFEX™ pretreatment or a liquid AFEX™ pretreatment.

In one embodiment, a fuel comprising the at least one densified biomass particulate described herein is provided. Such a fuel may be useful in biomass-burning stoves or boilers.

In one embodiment, an animal feed comprising the at least one densified biomass particulate described herein is provided.

In one embodiment, a solid material comprising the at least one densified biomass particulate described herein is provided. Such a solid material is useful in construction, such as in fiberboard or extruded fibrous building materials.

The resulting pellets are useful in a variety of applications, including, but not limited to, the production of animal feed, an entire suite of other bioproducts using chemical catalysis or conversions, other biochemical applications, electricity generating applications (e.g., burning in a boiler, a biomass-burning stove, and the like), as a component in solid materials, such as fiberboards and extruded fibrous building materials, and the like.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 comprises an image showing AFEX™ pretreated corn stover (AFEX™-CS), pretreated switchgrass (AFEX™-SG), AFEX™-CS pellets and AFEX™-SG pellets according to various embodiments.

FIG. 2 comprises an image of a binder-containing non-AFEX™-CS pellet and an AFEX™-CS pellet according to various embodiments.

FIGS. 3A-3E are images taken at various times of three biomass samples, including AFEX™-CS, AFEX™-CS pellets, and soaked AFEX™-CS pellets according to various embodiments.

FIG. 4 is a graph showing % glucan conversion versus biomass at 6 hr, 24 hr and 72 hr for the biomass samples shown in FIGS. 3C-3E according to various embodiments.

FIG. 5 is a graph showing % xylan conversion versus biomass at 6 hr, 24 hr and 72 hr for the biomass samples shown in FIGS. 3C-3E according to various embodiments.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart showing a comparison of distributed and centralized processing models according to various embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS

In the following detailed description, embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice them, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and that chemical and procedural changes may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present subject matter. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of embodiments of the present invention is defined only by the appended claims.

The term “biomass” as used herein, refers in general to organic matter harvested or collected from a renewable biological resource as a source of energy. The renewable biological resource can include plant materials, animal materials, and/or materials produced biologically. The term “biomass” is not considered to include fossil fuels, which are not renewable.

The term “plant biomass” or “ligno-cellulosic biomass” or “LCB” as used herein is intended to refer to virtually any plant-derived organic matter containing cellulose and/or hemicellulose as its primary carbohydrates (woody or non-woody) available for producing energy on a renewable basis. Plant biomass can include, but is not limited to, agricultural residues such as corn stover, wheat straw, rice straw, sugar cane bagasse and the like. Plant biomass further includes, but is not limited to, woody energy crops, wood wastes and residues such as trees, including fruit trees, such as fruit-bearing trees, (e.g., apple trees, orange trees, and the like), softwood forest thinnings, barky wastes, sawdust, paper and pulp industry waste streams, wood fiber, and the like. Additionally, perennial grass crops, such as various prairie grasses, including prairie cord grass, switchgrass, Miscanthus, big bluestem, little bluestem, side oats grama, and the like, have potential to be produced large-scale as additional plant biomass sources. For urban areas, potential plant biomass feedstock includes yard waste (e.g., grass clippings, leaves, tree clippings, brush, etc.) and vegetable processing waste. Plant biomass is known to be the most prevalent form of carbohydrate available in nature and corn stover is currently the largest source of readily available plant biomass in the United States. When describing the various embodiments and used without a qualifier, the term “biomass” is intended to refer to “plant biomass,” i.e., lignocellulosic biomass (LCB).

The term “biofuel” as used herein, refers to any renewable solid, liquid or gaseous fuel produced biologically and/or chemically, for example, those derived from biomass. Most biofuels are originally derived from biological processes such as the photosynthesis process and can therefore be considered a solar or chemical energy source. Other biofuels, such as natural polymers (e.g., chitin or certain sources of microbial cellulose), are not synthesized during photosynthesis, but can nonetheless be considered a biofuel because they are biodegradable. There are generally considered to be three types of biofuels derived from biomass synthesized during photosynthesis, namely, agricultural biofuels (defined below), municipal waste biofuels (residential and light commercial garbage or refuse, with most of the recyclable materials such as glass and metal removed) and forestry biofuels (e.g., trees, waste or byproduct streams from wood products, wood fiber, pulp and paper industries). Biofuels produced from biomass not synthesized during photosynthesis include, but are not limited to, those derived from chitin, which is a chemically modified form of cellulose known as an N-acetyl glucosamine polymer. Chitin is a significant component of the waste produced by the aquaculture industry because it comprises the shells of seafood.

The term “agricultural biofuel”, as used herein, refers to a biofuel derived from agricultural crops, lignocellulosic crop residues, grain processing facility wastes (e.g., wheat/oat hulls, corn/bean fines, out-of-specification materials, etc.), livestock production facility waste (e.g., manure, carcasses, etc.), livestock processing facility waste (e.g., undesirable parts, cleansing streams, contaminated materials, etc.), food processing facility waste (e.g., separated waste streams such as grease, fat, stems, shells, intermediate process residue, rinse/cleansing streams, etc.), value-added agricultural facility byproducts (e.g., distiller's wet grain (DWG) and syrup from ethanol production facilities, etc.), and the like. Examples of livestock industries include, but are not limited to, beef, pork, turkey, chicken, egg and dairy facilities. Examples of agricultural crops include, but are not limited to, any type of non-woody plant (e.g., cotton), grains such as corn, wheat, soybeans, sorghum, barley, oats, rye, and the like, herbs (e.g., peanuts), short rotation herbaceous crops such as switchgrass, alfalfa, and so forth.

The term “pretreatment step” as used herein, refers to any step, i.e., treatment intended to alter native biomass so it can be more efficiently and economically converted to reactive intermediate chemical compounds such as sugars, organic acids, etc., which can then be further processed to a variety of end products such as ethanol, isobutanol, long chain alkanes, etc. Pretreatment can reduce the degree of crystallinity of a polymeric substrate, reduce the interference of lignin with biomass conversion by hydrolyzing some of the structural carbohydrates, thus increasing their enzymatic digestibility and accelerating the degradation of biomass to useful products. Pretreatment methods can utilize acids of varying concentrations, including dilute acid pretreatments, concentrated acid pretreatments (using, for example, sulfuric acids, hydrochloric acids, organic acids, and the like) and/or alkali such as ammonia and/or ammonium hydroxide and/or calcium hydroxide and/or sodium hydroxide and/or lime, and the like. Pretreatment methods can additionally or alternatively utilize hydrothermal treatments including water, heat, steam or pressurized steam pretreatments, including, but not limited to, hydro-thermolysis pretreatment and liquid hot water pretreatment, further including, for example, acid catalyzed steam explosion pretreatment. Pretreatment can occur or be deployed in various types of containers, reactors, pipes, flow through cells and the like. Most pretreatment methods will cause the partial or full solubilization and/or destabilization of lignin and/or hydrolysis of hemicellulose to pentose sugars. Further examples of pretreatment include, but are not limited wet oxidation, organosolv pretreatment and mechanical extrusion.

The term “Ammonia Fiber Expansion” (hereinafter “AFEX™”) pretreatment” as used herein, refers to a process for pretreating biomass with liquid and/or vapor (gaseous) ammonia to solubilize lignin from plant cell walls and redeposit it from in between plant cell walls to the surface of the biomass. An AFEX™ pretreatment disrupts the lignocellulosic matrix, thus modifying the structure of lignin, partially hydrolyzing hemicellulose, and increasing the accessibility of cellulose and the remaining hemicellulose to subsequent enzymatic degradation. Lignin is the primary impediment to enzymatic hydrolysis of native biomass, and removal, relocation or transformation of lignin is a suspected mechanism of several of the leading pretreatment technologies, including AFEX™. However in contrast to many other pretreatments, the lower temperatures and non-acidic conditions of the AFEX™ process prevents lignin and/or sugars from being converted into 1 furfural, hydroxymethyl furfural, and organic acids that could negatively affect microbial activity. The AFEX™ process further expands and swells cellulose fibers and further breaks up amorphous hemi-cellulose in lignocellulosic biomass (LCB). These structural changes open up the plant cell wall structure enabling more efficient and complete conversion of LCB to value-added products, while preserving the nutrient value and composition of the material. Modified AFEX™ pretreatments further include, for example, extractive ammonia (EA) treatments.

The term “condensed AFEX™ pretreatment” or “gaseous AFEX™ pretreatment” as used herein, refers to a gaseous AFEX™ pretreatment as defined herein, which uses gaseous ammonia rather than liquid ammonia. By allowing hot ammonia gas, i.e., ammonia vapors (with or without a carrier) to condense directly on cooler biomass, the biomass heats up quickly and the ammonia and biomass come into intimate contact. Such a pretreatment process is now more commonly referred to as a gaseous AFEX™ pretreatment or “GAP” process.

The term “added binder” as used herein, refers to natural and/or synthetic substances and/or energy forms added or applied to biomass in an amount sufficient to improve stability of a densified biomass particulate. Examples of commonly added binders include, but are not limited to, exogenous heat, steam, water, air, corn starch, lignin compounds, lignite, coffee grounds, sap, pitch, polymers, salts, acids, bases, molasses, organic compounds, urea, and tar. Specialty additives are also used to improve binding and other pellet properties such as color, taste, pH stability, and water resistance. Added binder in the form of added energy is typically in the form of heat which is added outright, i.e., exogenous heat, such as convective or conducted heat, although radiated heat may also be used for the same purpose. The intentional addition of exogenous heat is in contrast to intrinsic heat which develops as a result of a material being processed, such as the heat of friction which develops in densification equipment during operation. As such, heat which is inherent to the pretreatment and/or densification of biomass is not considered herein to be “added binder.” Added binder may be added to the pretreated biomass at any time before, during or after a densification process. The amount of added binder can vary depending on the substrate being densified.

The term “particulate” or “biomass particulate” as used herein refers to densified (i.e., solid) biomass formed from a plurality of loose (which can include “chopped”) biomass fibers which are compressed to form a single particulate product which is dividable into separate pieces. A particulate can be hydrolysable or non-hydrolysable and can range in size from small microscopic particles (larger than powders) to pellets or large objects, such as bricks, or larger, such as hay bales or larger, with any suitable mass. The specific geometry and mass will depend on a variety of factors including the type of biomass used, the amount of compression used to create the particulate, the desired length of the particulate, and the particular end use.

The term “pellet” is used interchangeably herein with the term “briquette.” More common nomenclature currently in use utilizes the term “briquette” to refer to a compressed particulate (e.g., Example 1) and the term “pellet” to refer to an extruded particulate (e.g., Example 4), i.e., a compressed particulate formed with a shaping process in which material is forced through a die.

The term “bulk density” as used herein, refers to the mass or dry weight of a quantity of particles or particulates (granules and other “divided” solids) divided by the total volume they occupy (mass/volume). Therefore, bulk density is not an intrinsic property of the particles, as it is changeable when the particles are subjected to movement from an external source. The volume measurement is a combination of the particle volume (which includes the internal pore volume of a particle) and the intra-particle void volume. Bulk density=intrinsic density (of each particle)×(1−voids fraction). For a given intrinsic particle density, therefore, the bulk density depends only on the void fraction, which is variable.

The term “moisture content” as used herein, refers to percent moisture of biomass. Moisture content can be expressed on a dry weight basis (dwb) or a total weight basis, i.e., moisture wet basis (mwb). The total moisture content is calculated as grams of liquid, such as water per gram of wet biomass (biomass dry matter plus water) liquid times 100%. However, when used without qualification herein, the % moisture content refers to a dry weight basis.

The term “flowability” as used herein refers to the ability of particulates to flow out of a container using only the force of gravity. A product having increased flowability, therefore, would flow out of the container at a faster rate as compared to a product having lower flowability.

The term “logistical properties” as used herein refers to one or more properties of a particulate related to storage, handling, and transportation, which can include, but are not limited to stability, shelf life, flowability, high bulk density, high true density, compressibility, durability, relaxation, springback, permeability, unconfined yield strength, and the like.

Nearly all forms of lignocellulosic biomass, i.e., plant biomass, such as monocots, comprise three primary chemical fractions: hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Hemicellulose is a polymer of short, highly-branched chains of mostly five-carbon pentose sugars (xylose and arabinose), and to a lesser extent six-carbon hexose sugars (galactose, glucose and mannose). Dicots, on the other hand, have a high content of pectate and/or pectin, which is a polymer of alpha-linked glucuronic acid. Pectate may be “decorated” with mannose or rhamnose sugars, also). These sugars are highly substituted with acetic acid.

Because of its branched structure, hemicellulose is amorphous and relatively easy to hydrolyze (breakdown or cleave) to its individual constituent sugars by enzyme or dilute acid treatment. Cellulose is a linear polymer of glucose sugars, much like starch, which is the primary substrate of corn grain in dry grain and wet mill ethanol plants. However, unlike starch, the glucose sugars of cellulose are strung together by β-glycosidic linkages which allow cellulose to form closely-associated linear chains. Because of the high degree of hydrogen bonding that can occur between cellulose chains, cellulose forms a rigid crystalline structure that is highly stable and much more resistant to hydrolysis by chemical or enzymatic attack than starch or hemicellulose polymers. Lignin, which is a polymer of phenolic molecules, provides structural integrity to plants, and remains as residual material after the sugars in plant biomass have been fermented to ethanol. Lignin is a by-product of alcohol production and is considered a premium quality solid fuel because of its zero sulfur content and heating value, which is near that of sub-bituminous coal.

Typically, cellulose makes up 30 to 50% of residues from agricultural, municipal, and forestry sources. While cellulose is more difficult to convert to ethanol than hemicellulose, it is the sugar polymers of hemicellulose which can be more readily hydrolyzed to their individual component sugars for subsequent fermentation to ethanol. Although hemicellulose sugars represent the “low-hanging” fruit for conversion to ethanol, the substantially higher content of cellulose represents the greater potential for maximizing alcohol yields, such as ethanol, on a per ton basis of plant biomass.

As noted above, the hemicellulose fraction of biomass contains hexose and pentose sugars, while the cellulose fraction contains glucose. In current AFEX™ pretreatment operations, only limited hemicellulose conversions are obtained. It is further known that of the sugars extracted, about 30 to 35% is xylose and about 35 to 40% is glucose (most all of which is currently converted only in post-pretreatment steps). Overall conversions, as well as over-all ethanol yields, will vary depending on several factors such as biomass type, pretreatment type, and so forth.

Conventional methods used to convert biomass to alcohol include processes employing, for example, a concentrated acid hydrolysis pretreatment, a two-stage acid hydrolysis pretreatment as well as processes employing any known conventional pretreatment, such as hydrothermal or chemical pretreatments, followed by an enzymatic hydrolysis (i.e., enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis) or simultaneous enzymatic hydrolysis and saccharification. Such pretreatment methods can include, but are not limited to, dilute acid hydrolysis, high pressure hot water-based methods, i.e., hydrothermal treatments such as steam explosion and aqueous hot water extraction, reactor systems (e.g., batch, continuous flow, counter-flow, flow-through, and the like), AFEX™, ammonia recycled percolation (ARP), lime treatment and a pH-based treatment.

Several of these methods generate nearly complete hydrolysis of the hemicellulose fraction to efficiently recover high yields of the soluble pentose sugars. This also facilitates the physical removal of the surrounding hemicellulose and lignin, thus exposing the cellulose to later processing. However, most, if not all, pretreatment approaches do not significantly hydrolyze the cellulose fraction of biomass.

In one embodiment, an ammonia fiber expansion method (AFEX™) pretreatment is used as defined herein. As such, the AFEX™ pretreatment can be a liquid and/or gaseous ammonia pretreatment, and can further include an extractive AFEX™ pretreatment (“E-AFEX™). Such treatments can be performed according to the methods described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,106,888 ('888), 7,176,176 ('176), 5,037,663 ('663), and 4,600,590 ('590) and 8,394,691 ('691), each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. See also, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,901,517, U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 13/591,092, 12/976,344, and PCT Publication No. WO2012/088429, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. In various embodiments steam and/or water is also used during pretreatment.

In one embodiment, biomass is heated to a temperature of from about 60° C. to about 100° C. or higher, such as up to about 150° C., including any range or value therebetween, in the presence of non-volatile base, such as ammonia (e.g., concentrated ammonia) and/or various hydroxide bases, such as calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and the like. See, for example, Dale, B. E. et al., 2004, Pretreatment of corn stover using ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX™), Applied Biochem, Biotechnol. 115: 951-963, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. A rapid pressure drop then causes a physical disruption of the biomass structure, exposing cellulose and hemicellulose fibers, without the extreme sugar degradation common to many pretreatments.

In one embodiment, nearly all of the ammonia can be recovered and reused while the remaining ammonia serves as nitrogen source for microbes in fermentation. In one embodiment, about one (1) to about two (2) wt % of the non-volatile base, such as ammonia, remains on the pretreated biomass.

Additionally, since there is no wash stream in the process, dry matter recovery following an AFEX™ pretreatment is essentially quantitative. This is because an AFEX™ pretreatment is basically a dry to dry process.

AFEX™-pretreated biomass is also stable for longer periods (e.g., up to at least a year) than non-AFEX™-pretreated biomass and can be fed at very high solids loadings (such as at least about 40%) in enzymatic hydrolysis or fermentation process as compared with dilute acid or other aqueous pretreatments that cannot easily exceed 20% solids.

Cellulose and hemicellulose are also well-preserved in an AFEX™ pretreatment process, showing little degradation. As such, there is no need for neutralization prior to enzymatic hydrolysis of AFEX™-pretreated biomass. Enzymatic hydrolysis of AFEX™-pretreated biomass also produces clean sugar streams for subsequent fermentation.

Degradation products from AFEX™-pretreated biomass have also been identified and quantified. One such study compared AFEX™ and acid-pretreated corn stover using LC-MS/GC-MS techniques. In acid-pretreated feedstock, over 40 major compounds were detected, including organic acids, furans, aromatic compounds, phenolics, amides and oligosaccharides. AFEX™ pretreatment performed under mild alkaline condition produced very little acetic acid, HMF, and furfural. See, Dale, B. E. et al., 2004, supra, and Dale, B. E. et al, 2005b, Pretreatment of Switchgrass Using Ammonia Fiber Expansion (AFEX™), Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. Vol. 121-124. pp. 1133 1142. See also Dale, B. E. et al., 2005a. Optimization of the Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX™) Treatment Parameters for Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Corn Stover, Bioresource Technology. Vol. 96, pp. 2014-2018.

In one embodiment, a modified AFEX™ pretreatment process is used as described in Example 1. In this method, gaseous ammonia is used, which condenses on the biomass itself.

In one embodiment, AFEX™ pretreatment conditions are optimized for a particular biomass type and a particular pretreatment. Such conditions include, but are not limited to, ammonia loading, moisture content of biomass, temperature, and residence time. In one embodiment, corn stover is subject to an AFEX™ pretreatment at a temperature of about 90° C., ammonia: dry corn stover mass ratio of less than 1:1 up to about 1:1, moisture content of corn stover of 60% (dry weight basis, (dwb)), i.e., 37.5% (total weight basis), and residence time (holding at target temperature), of five (5) min. In one embodiment, switchgrass is subjected to an AFEX™ pretreatment at a temperature of about 100° C., ammonia loading of less than 1:1 up to about 1:1 kg of ammonia: kg of dry matter, and 80% moisture content (dwb), i.e., 45% (total weight basis) at five (5) min residence time.

Hydrolysis results of AFEX™-pretreated and untreated samples in one embodiment can have a glucan conversion of about 93% vs. 16%, respectively. In one embodiment, the ethanol yield of optimized AFEX™-pretreated switchgrass can be about 0.2 g ethanol/g dry biomass, which is approximately 2.5 times more than that of the untreated sample. See Dale, B. E. et al., 2005b, supra.

In one embodiment, approximately 98% of the theoretical glucose yield is obtained during enzymatic hydrolysis of an AFEX™-pretreated corn stover using 60 filter paper units (FPU) of cellulase enzyme/g of glucan (equal to 22 FPU/g of dry corn stover).

In one embodiment, ethanol yield can increase by up to 2.2 times over that of an untreated sample. In one embodiment, lower enzyme loadings of 15 and 7.5 FPU/g of glucan do not significantly affect the glucose yield, as compared with 60 FPU. In this embodiment, differences between effects at different enzyme levels decreased as the treatment temperature increased. See, for example, Dale, B. E. et al., 2004, supra; and Dale, B. E. et al., 2004, supra.

Optimal AFEX™ pretreatment conditions for hydrolysis and fermentation of switchgrass and corn stover are also discussed in Dale, B. E. et al., 2004, supra; Dale, B. E. et al, 2005b, supra; and Dale, B. E. et al., 2005b, supra.

In one embodiment, a modified AFEX™ pretreatment with significantly reduced ammonia loadings and lower required concentrations of ammonia is used. See Elizabeth (Newton) Sendich, et al., Recent process improvements for the ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX™) process and resulting reductions in minimum ethanol selling price, 2008, Bioresource Technology 99: 8429-8435 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2008/0008783 to Dale, B. E.

In one embodiment, steam is used as a pretreatment instead of or in addition to an AFEX™ treatment. However, steam tends to reduce availability of sugars, thus reducing the overall quality of animal feed. Regardless, steam remains a viable optional embodiment for pretreatment. When biomass is being pelletized, the pellets themselves typically become hot. Additionally, water is oftentimes added to bring the biomass up to a desired moisture content, such as between about 10 and about 20%, such as about 12 and about 18%, such as around 15%±1%. As such, steam typically develops prior to and during an AFEX™ pretreatment anyway. Addition of additional steam may allow water to be distributed evenly through the pellet. In one embodiment, when the pelletization process is complete, steam evaporates, leaving a pellet that is sufficiently dry, i.e., typically containing about five (5) to about 20% moisture, although the invention is not so limited.

Although a non-volatile base, such as sodium hydroxide, may also be used to move the lignin to the surface, the sodium hydroxide which remains after evaporation may negatively impact further application of the pretreated material, such as for animal feed and other applications, although may not be a concern other applications.

Due to temperatures reaching the glass transition temperature of the oligomers within the fiber (e.g., lignin, hemicelluloses), pretreatments, such as AFEX™ (and/or steam) also transfers these oligomers (primarily lignin), and in some embodiments, an amount of hemicellulose, to the surface. Once on the surface, the lignin and hemicellulose are tacky. Surprisingly, these oligomers (lignin or lignin and hemicellulose) contain sufficient tackiness to provide properties at least comparable to an added binder (as the term is defined herein). As such, and surprisingly, there is no need to cure the pretreated biomass (e.g., with heat) prior to forming them into pellets. Additionally surprising and unexpected is the discovery that there is no need to add binder in any form to produce pellets having properties at least as good as, if not better than, conventional pellets containing binder. The ability to omit the step of curing and/or adding binder further provides significant costs savings during production, leading to a product which is not only environmentally green but highly economical and transportable, including transportation by conventional means.

In one embodiment, the densification device utilizes a gear mesh system to compress biomass through a tapering channel between adjacent gear teeth. This densification device operates at temperatures less than 60° C. (See Example 2). In one embodiment, energy consumption is minimized and physical and downstream processing characteristics are optimized.

In one embodiment, an alternative pelleting device is used to form more conventional cylindrically-shaped pellets (See Example 4).

In one embodiment, the bulk density of a plurality of pellets is at least 200 kg/m³. In one embodiment, the density is at least 300 kg/m³, at least 400 kg/m³, at least 500 kg/m³, at least 600 kg/m³, at least 700 kg/m³, at least 800 kg/m³, or higher, such as at least 850 kg/m³, such as about 200 to about 850 kg/m³, such as about 300 to about 800, such as about 400 to about 765, such as about 500 to about 800, such as about 547.2 to about 765, including any ranges and values therebetween.

In one embodiment, as stated in Example 8 of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/458,830 filed on Apr. 27, 2012 (hereinafter '830 Application), which application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, the bulk density of the pellets, increased from 50 g/L for untreated corn stover to nearly 600 g/L for material pelleted at 12% moisture content (mwb). Corn stover pelleted at higher moisture contents saw a significant decrease in bulk density, although the bulk density was still greater than for conventional bales (˜120 kg/m³) and the loose AFEX™-pretreated corn stover, which had a bulk density of ˜80 kg/m³.

As further noted in Example 6 of the '830 Application, in one embodiment, AFEX™-pretreated corn stover pellets can be produced at any total moisture content, such as between about 12 and about 50% total weight basis. The pellets can be produced in any suitable size, such, as in particle sizes ranging from about 2 mm to about 25 mm (1 inch), and still maintain a bulk density above 200 kg/m³. It is possible that pellets can be produced at even higher and/or lower moisture contents. However, dryer pellets provide a higher bulk density and longer term storability.

In one embodiment, an integrated biomass pretreatment and densification process is provided in a regional biomass processing center (RBPC) discussed below, with the facilities for pretreatment and densification provided in separate locations (e.g., including on opposite sides of a driveway or roadway) or co-located no more than about 1000 ft apart or less, such as no more than about 900 ft, about 800 ft, about 700 ft, about 600 ft, about 500 ft, about 400 ft, about 300 ft, about 200 ft, about 100 ft, about 50 ft, about 40 ft, about 30 ft or less, including any range or value therebetween. In one embodiment, the facilities are located in adjacent structures less than 20 ft apart. In one embodiment, the adjacent structures can have a common roof or a walkway therebetween. In one embodiment, the facilities are located in the same structure and can be separated by a permanent or temporary partition. In a particular embodiment, an ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX™) pretreatment is used in conjunction with a densification process to produce densified biomass particulates (hereinafter called “pellets”), in a process requiring no added binder.

In one embodiment, the pellets have an inherent (i.e., intrinsic) density of at least ten (10) times that of baled biomass (which itself is about 192.2 to about 240.28 kg/m³ (about 12 to about 15 lb/ft³)).

There are several advantages to the integrated process described herein as compared to facilities relying on loose or unbaled biomass as a feedstock for producing a bioproduct. Loose, including chopped loose biomass, i.e., unbaled biomass, can have varied bulk densities, but typically fall within a range of between about 45 and about 55 kg/m³, although can be as high as about 60 kg/m.³ In contrast, in various embodiments, the pellets have a bulk density of about 2 to 10, or about 3 to 9, or about 4 to 8, or about 5 to 7 or about 5 to 10 times greater than the bulk density of loose biomass of the same given mass, such as at least two times, at least three times, at least four times, at least five times, at least six times, at least seven times, at least eight times, at least nine times, up to 10 times greater, including any range or value therebetween.

A conventional bale has a bulk density roughly double (or slightly higher than) the original bulk density of the loose biomass from which it is formed, such as at least about 90 kg/m up to about 120 kg/m). See also, for example, a UK “bale test report”, which lists rectangular prism barley bale densities at about 125 kg/m.

In one embodiment, the pellets have a bulk density greater than conventionally baled biomass. In various embodiments, pellets of a given mass have a bulk density of about 2 to about 5, or about 3 to about 5, or about 4 to about 5 times greater than the bulk density of baled biomass of the same given mass, such as at least two times, at least three times, at least four times, up to five times greater, including any range or value therebetween. In one embodiment, the bulk density of the pellets is at least 5 times greater than the bulk density of baled biomass.

The pellets also have a bulk density greater than biomass that has been compressed in any manner, such as with a compaction system, either in addition to or as an alternative to baling. In comparison to biomass which has been compressed to increase the bulk density about 2 to 3 times greater than non-compressed or unbaled biomass, the pellets can have a bulk density at least twice as high, up to three times as high or higher.

Use of a process, such as the integrated process described herein, eliminates the need for further pretreatment at the processing plant and further minimizes the distance that low density feedstock bales need to be transported.

In one embodiment, densified pellets are transported to a RBPC using existing transportation and handling infrastructure used for grains.

In one embodiment, AFEX™ conditions are optimized according to the type of biomass being processed to enhance binding properties and increase hydrolysis efficiency following densification and storage.

It is further expected that downstream processing characteristics will be at least as good or better than non-densified biomass in terms of hydrolysis, fermentation rates, yields, and so forth.

In one embodiment, AFEX™ biomass pellets having no added binder are provided. In contrast to conventional binder-containing pellets, the novel AFEX™ pellets described herein have a substantially smooth, non-flakey outer surface, likely due to the presence of lignin and, in some embodiments, hemicellulose, on the outer surface of the pellet, which essentially serve as a type of coating. As such, AFEX™ pellets are not susceptible to flaking (loss of mass) as with a conventional pellet which has no coating and contains removable flakes on its outer surface. In contrast to conventional pellets containing certain binders, such as water, which are dull in appearance, the novel AFEX™ biomass pellets have a shiny appearance. In some embodiments, the presence of lignin and/or hemicellulose is not restricted to the surface only, but also is found deeper inside the microscopic pores of the biomass particle. Therefore, the AFEX™ pellet may have added benefits, such as more efficient burning/co-firing with lignite coal than a conventional pellet whose added binder is chemically restricted to the surface of the biomass particle only.

The AFEX™ pellets further are less bendable and therefore tend to be straighter than conventional pellets. Surprisingly, the novel AFEX™ pellets have a harder “feel” to them (and are likely less brittle) as compared with the softer feel of a conventional pellet. Hardness tests (Example 4) reveal that the AFEX™ pellet is stronger initially before suddenly breaking. In contrast, a conventional pellet, such as a non-AFEX™ pellet, while maintaining strength for a longer time, is essentially more “squeezable” or “squishier” than the novel AFEX™ pellet (more comparable to softness of a “cigar”). In one embodiment, an AFEX™-CS pellet is at least 21% harder and demonstrates at least 20% less variability in hardness. In one embodiment, the novel AFEX™ pellets exhibit less deformation than conventional pellets (See, for example, Table 7). It is likely that AFEX™ pellets made from other types of biomass will demonstrate similar or better results.

Lignin is generally darker than other components in plant material, so the resulting material is noticeably darker in appearance than a material not substantially surrounded by lignin. See, for example, FIG. 2, which shows an image of a binder-containing non-AFEX™-CS pellet (202) and an AFEX™-CS pellet (204).

In one embodiment, the AFEX™-CS pellets have a specific gravity of up to 1.16 as compared with a non-AFEX™ pellet with a specific gravity of no more than 0.87, although the invention is not so limited. As the AFEX™ pellets appear to be less porous and further demonstrate superior hardness properties as compared with conventional pellets, AFEX™ pellets are likely to show improved short and long term storage properties including, flowability, compression strength, water solubility, absorption, and overall shelf life, with reduced susceptibility to degradation due to heat, bugs, and the like.

It is also expected that the AFEX™ pellets will have an improved flowability. Further testing, as noted in prophetic examples will quantify the amount of improvement.

The resulting pellets are useful in a variety of applications, including, but not limited to, animal feed, chemical conversion, biochemical applications, electricity generating applications (e.g., burning in a boiler), fuel for biomass-burning stoves, and as a component in solid materials, such as fiberboards and extruded fibrous building materials.

The ammonia pretreatment in the various AFEX™ processes described herein dissolves a certain amount of lignin and further brings a significant amount of lignin from the interior of a plant material to the outer surface or outer edges of the fiber. As a result, the material is more easily digested by animals. In one embodiment, a combination of the novel AFEX™ pellets as described herein together with suitable additives and fillers as is known in the art produces a novel animal feed.

A blending of the novel AFEX™ pellets with coal provides a novel feed material in power plants.

The logistics of harvesting, handling, transporting, and storing low bulk density feedstocks is a significant challenge to the developing bioeconomy. In one example, and assuming a yield of 70 gal/ton, biomass baled at a density 120 kg/m³ would require over ten times the volume of material for a given volume of ethanol compared with corn grain or with densified biomass particulates. This lower bulk density will not allow trucks to reach maximum weight capacity, further increasing the number of trucks required for feedstock supply. Biomass densification through an extrusion pelleting process has also been demonstrated, but at a cost that limits the ability to lower net costs for feedstock delivery.

As the bioeconomy develops, individual producers will need the flexibility to sell their biomass (e.g., corn stover) into the bioenergy market as economics warrant. For example, with use of RBPCs (within about a 5 to about 10 mile area or less, for example, including any range or value therebetween), substantially round, substantially square, or substantially rectangular bales of biomass may be transported using the existing infrastructure and equipment of the trucking industry.

Because the RBPCs can be scaled appropriately, trucking distances are minimized. Moreover, the presence of multiple, distributed RBPCs can minimize not only the need for long term storage of biomass (i.e., more than two weeks, up to one year, two years or three years, including any range there between), but such a system also eliminates the need to transport biomass more than once (i.e., from the field to a long term stock piling site and again to a bioproduct production facility). As those skilled in the art understand, not only are costs incurred with each move, the bales themselves are subject to damage every time they are touched.

In one embodiment, shorter term storage is used at an RBPC site for a limited amount of baled (or unbaled or compressed) biomass. In one embodiment, less than 1000 bales are stored at a time. In one embodiment, the shorter term storage comprises no more than a two-week supply, such as a one-week supply or less, down to a one-day supply, including any range there between. In one embodiment, a two-day supply of about 400 to about 800 bales are stored for a maximum of two days at the RBPC. In one embodiment, bale wraps and other current methods to minimize expense are used.

In one embodiment, the biomass is then pretreated and densified at the RBPC to produce pretreated densified biomass particulates occupying up to 50% less volume than the original baled biomass. This reduced footprint results in further cost savings, as compared to storage of low bulk density baled biomass feedstock, since less land is utilized. In one embodiment, the densified biomass particulates are stored in suitable containers thus eliminating exposure to the elements.

Subsequent transportation of the higher bulk density densified biomass particulates to a bioproduct production facility is highly efficient in that vehicles (e.g., trucks, trains, ships, etc.) can be used at their maximum weight capacity, thus decreasing the number of vehicles required for providing feedstock to the bioproduct production facility. In one embodiment, pretreating and densification of the biomass can occur within a time period that minimizes storage time for both the incoming biomass and the outgoing feedstock, and maximizes efficiencies of the overall process (from harvest to bioproduct production).

Such a system is in contrast to conventional methods which forego use of a RBPC altogether and instead expend resources to create stacks of thousands, up to tens of thousands of bales, for long term storage on multiple sites (such as up to 50 or more sites within a 100 sq mile area, with 10,000 to 15,000 bales at each site) for eventual transport to and use at a bioproduct production facility. In practice, such bales have been known to include, for example, substantially square or rectangular bales (e.g., approximately 3 ft×3 ft×6 ft) which can be stacked 5 to 8 bales or more in height, up to 5 to 8 bales or more in width, and up to 15 to 30 or more in length (with multiple stacks, such as up to 10, up to 20, up to 30 or more, each of which can be 15 to 20 ft high or higher, generally placed proximate to one another on the same site). In such stacks, tarps covering the top of the stack are typically secured only along the uppermost bale of the stack along the length of the stack and only to a portion of the uppermost bales on the ends, leaving most of all four sides and most of the end bales exposed to the elements. Such stacks can further have 2 to 5 bales stacked two or more bales high along each end that are fully exposed to the elements.

With use of short-term storage of a limited number of bales at RBPC's prior to pretreatment and densification, as described herein, not only are transportation and storage costs reduced, but the disadvantages associated with long term storage of high volumes of low bulk density biomass in multiple large stacks are avoided. Such disadvantages include, but are not limited to, threats to neighboring landowners from spontaneous combustion of the high volume of minimally tarped stacks exposed to water in the form of rain, snow and the like, fire risk (especially during drought conditions), dust, airborne particulates, erosion, and rodent infestations (after the bales are removed), and the like, are reduced. Such disadvantages further include, but are not limited to, the creation of nuisances, such as loss of enjoyment of neighboring landowners property, not only due to the eyesore created by multiple “building-like” structures capped in plastic, but also by the creation of an artificial horizon with a series of stacks. Such issues would be particularly prevalent in locations having a relatively flat landscape or if the neighboring landscape is lower than the property containing the stacks.

Furthermore, by locating such storage sites on fertile farm fields capable of being planted to crops such as corn or soybeans, and the like, adverse land use issues are created since the fields are not being used to grow crops, which can further lead to erosion and/or runoff issues on the site and/or on neighboring sites. If such issues are addressed at all, such as by planting and maintaining buffer strips, the costs are only increased.

With many states limiting the ability for counties to control or restrict local land usage in rural areas, it is possible even larger stacks and/or an increased number of stacks can be stock-piled for even longer periods, such as in excess of three years.

In one embodiment, the RBPC and the bioproduct production facility are located at the same site, adjacent to one another, or within a distance of less than 5 miles, such as less than 4 miles, less than 3 miles, less than 2 miles, less than 1 mile, including any range or value therebetween.

The various embodiments will be further described by reference to the following examples, which are offered to further illustrate various embodiments of the present invention. It should be understood, however, that many variations and modifications may be made while remaining within the scope of the present invention.

Example 1

Corn stover (CS) (everything remaining after grain is harvested, typically including stalks and leaves w/o cobs)) from a hybrid corn plant (Zea mays L.) grown at the Michigan State University (MSU) Agronomy Center Field was harvested in October 2007, and stored at room temperature in individual five (5) kg bags which were housed in a 30-gal trash bin. Switchgrass (SG) from the “Alamo” lowland variety of seed, Panicum virgatum L. grown at the Thelen Field located on Farm Lane at MSU, was harvested in October, 2005, and stored in sealed Ziploc® brand plastic bags in a freezer at four (4)° C.

The CS and SG were each subjected to an AFEX™ pretreatment comparable to the methods described in U.S. Pat. Nos. '888, '176, '663, '590, and '691 noted above, but with certain modifications. Specifically, rather than applying liquid ammonia to the biomass and allowing the ammonia and biomass to react as in a conventional AFEX™ pretreatment, gaseous ammonia was used instead. By allowing hot ammonia gas to condense directly on cooler biomass, the ammonia and biomass become well-mixed.

The gaseous AFEX™ pretreatment (GAP) was performed in the Biomass Conversion Research Laboratory at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich. Unless otherwise noted, standard laboratory equipment available in conventionally stocked laboratories was used. The AFEX™ pretreatment was performed in an approved ventilation hood with protective glass sash minimum face velocity of 75 feet/minute.

A Parr Instruments Model 4524 bench top reactor (hereinafter “4254 reactor”) was used for this testing. The reaction chamber was first placed into the heating mantle of the 4254 reactor. A J-type T-couple temperature probe was connected to a Parr Instruments Model 4843 Modular (heat) controller (hereinafter “4843 controller”) on one end and to the reaction chamber on the other end by placing the temperature probe against the internal wall of (about half-way down) the reaction chamber. The reaction chamber was then covered with a custom-fabricated circular stainless sheet metal piece having an approximately 12.7 cm (about five (5) in) diameter relief cut out for the temperature probe. The controller was turned on to low (with a red heater switch) and a J-type temperature (blue) controller showed a room temperature reading of about 25° C.±5° C.

A (yellow) K-type thermocouple (red display) and (green) Omega brand CX105 pressure connector (having offices in Stamford, Conn.) (green display) from the controller were briefly connected to test the 4254 reactor cover probes. The red display showed a room temperature reading of about 25° C.±5° C. The green display showed a one (1) atm gauge pressure reading of −0.34 to about 0.34 atm (about −5 to about 5 psig). The yellow and green connecters and 4254 reactor cover were then set aside and the blue preheat temperature was turned on to preheat the 4254 reactor to a target temperature of room temperature +20° C. The blue display was observed for about five (5) minutes to ensure that the blue temperature increased at a rate of about three (3)° C./minute.

A Sartorius MA35 moisture analyzer (Goettingen, Germany) was used to determine the moisture content of each of the biomass samples. Initial moisture measurements for the samples were typically five (5) to ten (10) % total moisture wet basis (mwb). The dry weight of each sample added to the 4254 reactor was 150 grams (g) dry weight, i.e., “dry biomass.” An amount of biomass was then weighed out to result in 150 g of dry biomass (as given by the total moisture calculation). For example, for a biomass sample containing five (5) % total moisture content (mwb), the following calculation would be made: x (g) of water in biomass=150 g dry/1−0.05)−150 g biomass. Solving for “x” results in 7.9 g of water present in the biomass. Thus, in this example, adding 150 g dry weight of biomass would include weighing and adding 157.9 g of the biomass sample at 5% moisture content (mwb).

A calculation was then made to determine the amount of deionized water to be added to each sample. For corn stover, the desired moisture content, i.e., percentage of total water to dry biomass was 60% (dwb), (i.e., 37.5% mwb). For switchgrass, the desired moisture content was 80% (dwb), i.e., 45% mwb). These amounts were selected because they represent the optimal respective biomass moistures for maximum glucose and xylose yields from enzymatic hydrolysis after AFEX™.

Therefore, for a corn stover sample with 7.9 g of water already present, but requiring 60% (dwb) moisture content, the following calculation would be made: x (g) water to be added to biomass=(0.6*150 g dry biomass)−7.9 g water already in biomass. Solving for “x” would result in 82.1 g of water to be added. The total weight of a 150 g (dwb) corn stover sample in this instance would be 82.1 g+7.9 g+150 g=240 g. (When using the total moisture content value of 37.5%, the calculation for grams of water to be added to biomass (“x”) would instead=150 g dry biomass/(1−0.375)−150 g−7.9 g water already in biomass. Solving for “x” would also result in 82.1 g of water to be added). Water was misted onto each biomass sample with a water bottle until the total weight (dry biomass (g)+water desired (g)) was achieved. The biomass was evenly coated with water by stirring the biomass.

An empty 500 ml ammonia cylinder having a 208 g maximum fill level (Parker 500 ml spun 316 Stainless steel pressure vessel (hereinafter “Parker cylinder”) with high-pressure Swagelok® Series 83 two-way ball valves installed at both ends, made by Swagelok Co. (having offices in Chicago, Ill.) was weighed. Since eight (8) g was determined to be the approximate residual ammonia left in the cylinder after completion of this step, the total weight of the cylinder and ammonia required for AFEX™ pretreatment was determined by adding eight (8) g to the weight of the amount of ammonia needed.

The Parker cylinder was attached to an Airgas™ brand stock ammonia tank (with siphon tube) made by Airgas, Inc. (Radnor, Pa.), by opening the inlet valve on the ammonia tank, followed by opening the inlet valve on the Parker cylinder. The Parker cylinder was allowed to fill until it was cold and no more filling noise from the cylinder could be heard (elapsed time was about one (1) min). The exit valve on the ammonia tank was opened about ¼^(th) of the way. After a few trials, it was determined that it took about 20 seconds to add 158 g of ammonia to the Parker cylinder. Thereafter, all valves were closed, starting with the exit valve of the Parker cylinder and finally, the exit valve on the ammonia tank. The Parker cylinder was weighed to make sure the total weight was equal to the expected weight. Some ammonia was released under the hood if the weight was too great. When it was not enough, the above step was repeated.

The Parker cylinder, now containing ammonia, was heated by first wrapping it in BH Thermal brand Briskheat (Columbus, Ohio) heat tape and plugging in the BH Thermal brand Briskheat (Columbus, Ohio) heat tape controller. Cylinder pressure started at 0-125 psig (depending on the temperature of the ammonia inside the cylinder, as it became cold during the filling step). The Parker cylinder was heated to 600 psig (40 bar), adjustable from 400 psig (27 bar) for “colder” reactions (80° C.) to 1000 psig (70 bar) for hot reactions (160° C.). The pressure increased slowly, but always at a rate less than 0.034 atm/sec (five (5) psig/sec).

The desired biomass was then added to the reaction chamber. The (black) temperature probe was removed from the reaction chamber and placed into the slot on the side of the heater mantle that allowed the outside surface temperature of the reaction chamber to be measured. The (blue) display temperature was adjusted (using arrow keys)+20 degrees more than the original preheat to allow for the continued heating of the reaction chamber.

The cover of the reaction chamber was replaced and a funnel was added. The selected biomass sample was then poured down the funnel into the reaction chamber. Once added, the (yellow) temperature probe tip was completely covered with biomass and was observed to be about 2.54 cm (about one (1) in) from the ammonia input nozzle of the cover. The funnel was then removed, the cover returned on top of the 4254 reactor and brackets were tightened with bolts to seal it in place.

The Parker cylinder was then attached to the reaction chamber. A Welch Model 8803 vacuum pump (Niles, Ill.) was also attached to the reaction chamber. The vacuum valve on the 4524 reactor was opened and the vacuum was turned on to pump air from the 4254 reactor for one (1) minute. The vacuum valve was closed and the vacuum was turn off. The (yellow) temperature probe and (green) pressure connector was plugged into the 4843 controller. The valve on ammonia cylinder (only) leading towards reaction chamber was opened.

The AFEX™ reaction was started by opening the 4254 reactor valve connected to the Parker cylinder. When the pressure between the Parker ammonia cylinder and the reaction chamber was equalized, the valves between the ammonia cylinder and the reaction chamber were closed (i.e., after about one (1) min). The heat tape on the Parker cylinder was also turned off. The 4843 reactor heater was left on a low setting at 20° C. above the original temperature used at pre-heat. After about one (1) minute the peak (red) display temperature and (green) pressure were recorded. When the (red) display temperature did not reach >100° C. within 1 minute, it meant the feedstock is not touching the temperature probe. The temperature and pressure were recorded approximately every five (5) minutes thereafter.

Starting approximately five (5) minutes before expansion step noted below, the vacuum was detached from the 4524 reaction chamber cover. The ammonia cylinder pipe was removed from the reaction chamber cover. The reaction chamber was rotated so that the 4524 pressure release valve was facing toward the back of the fume ventilation hood. The ventilation hood sash was adjusted for maximum face velocity (75 feet/minute recommended). Expansion step: Ear protection was worn. The ammonia pressure in the 4524 was released by opening the pressure release valve quickly.

The reaction chamber cover was removed. The biomass was removed and placed in a tray and left under the ventilation hood to allow ammonia vapor to volatilize. The AFEX™ biomass was allowed to air-dry over-night. The Parker cylinder was weighed to determine residual grams of ammonia applied to the biomass and the weight was recorded. The remaining ammonia (approximately 8 g) was released from the Parker cylinder inside of ventilation hood.

Example 2

Starting Materials and Sample Preparation

Corn stover (CS) obtained from the same source as described in Example 1 was used. Two samples, two (2) kg each, of each type of biomass were then subjected to the AFEX™ pretreatment according to the method described in Example 1. After pretreatment, samples were densified using a pelleting device (Federal Machine Co. d/b/a ComPAKco, LLC, Fargo, N. Dak.) to produce AFEX™ corn stover (AFEX™-CS) pellets and AFEX™ switchgrass (AFEX™-SG) pellets.

FIG. 1 shows an image of the four resulting products, which include seven (7) g of AFEX™-CS 102, 12 g of AFEX™-SG 104, a 22 g AFEX™-CS 106 pellet and a 23 g AFEX™-SG pellet 108). The AFEX™-CS and AFEX™ SG pellets, 106 and 108, respectively, had a substantially rectangular shape. Both pellets 106 and 108 were about 2.54 cm (about one (1) in) wide, about 1.27 (0.5 in) depth and about 10.16 to about 12.7 cm (about four (4) to about five (5) in) in length. (Pellet length is dependent on the particular setting use on the ComPAKco machine).

This image illustrates that just seven (7) to 12 grams of unpelleted biomass, such as AFEX™-CS 102 and AFEX™-SG 104, occupies more space than a 22 or 23 g pellet, such as AFEX™-CS pellet 106 and AFEX™-SG pellet 108. In this instance, the unpelleted biomass (102 and 104) occupies about 570 to about 980% more space than the pelleted biomass (106 and 108).

Testing Performed

Several additional samples were prepared in the manner described above and subjected to preliminary physical tests such as Angle of Repose (°) according to the method described in Carr, R. L. Jr. 1965. Evaluating flow properties of solids. Chemical Engineering 72(3): 163-168.

Thermal Conductivity (W/m° C.) was determined with a thermal properties meter (KD2, Decagon Devices, Pullman, Wash.) that utilized the line heat source probe technique described in Baghe-Khandan, M., S. Y Choi, and M. R. Okos. 1981, Improved line heat source thermal conductivity probe, J. of Food Science 46(5):1430-1432.

Water activity was measured using a calibrated water activity meter (AW Sprint TH 500, Novasina, Talstrasse, Switzerland).

Bulk density (kg/m³), true density (kg/m³) and porosity were determined using a multivolume pycnometer (Micromeritics model 1305, Norcross, Ga.) as described in Sahin, S. and S. G. Sumnu. 2006, Physical properties of foods, New York, N.Y.: Springer Science Media, LLC.

Moisture Content (mwb) was determined by ASAE standard method 5352.1 using ISOTEMP laboratory scale (model no: 838F, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.) as described in ASAE Standards. 51^(st) ed. 2004. S352.1: Moisture measurement—Grain and seeds, St. Joseph, Mich.: ASABE

Color properties (L*, a*, b*) were measured using a spectrocolorimeter (LabScan XE, Hunter Associates Laboratory, Reston, Va.).

Roundness and sphericity were determined using an Olympus SZH10 stereo microscope with a DP digital camera, followed by image analysis of the particles by Image Pro Plus® software.

Water Solubility Index (%) and Water Absorption Index (−) were calculated using the method described in Anderson, R. A., H. F. Conway, V. F. Pfeifer, and E. L. Griffin. 1969, Gelatinization of corn grits by roll and extrusion cooking, Cereal Science Today 14 (1): 4.

Results are shown in Table 1 below:

TABLE 1 Physical properties of AFEX ™-CS and SG vs. AFEX ™-CS and AFEX ™-SG Pellets* Biomass AoR TC aw BD Porosity TD MC*** Color Roundness Sphericity WAI WSI type (°) (W/m° C.) (—) (kg/m³) (—) (kg/m³) (% dwb) L* a* b* (—) (—) (—) (%) AFEX ™ 57.4a 0.035b 0.575c 547.2a 0.487 918a 13.9b 21.7b 2.21c 6.47b 0.56a 0.64a 6.30b 6.74a switchgrass pellets AFEX ™ 56a 0.055a 0.787a b 0.640a c 29.3a 17.8c 2.20c 5.94b 0.635a 0.52c 6.17b 6.14a switchgrass — — biomass AFEX ™ 60.6a 0.04ab 0.451b 549.2a 0.376b 722b  7.41c 21.5b 3.14b 6.70b 0.45b 0.6b 7.14ab 4.36a Corn stover pellets AFEX ™ 54.4a 0.045ab 0.672b b 0.657a c 16.7b 24.2a 3.69a 8.81a 0.56a 0.61ab 8.03a 5.63a corn stover — — biomass *Similar letters for a given property is not significantly different at α = 0.05 n = 2 for all the properties analyzed AoR—Angle of Repose (°); TC—Thermal Conductivity (W/m° C.); aw—Water activity (—); BD—Bulk density (kg/m³) ; TD—True Density (kg/m³); MC—Moisture Content (% db); L* - Brightness or luminosity; a* - redness or greenness; b* - yellowness or blueness; WAI—Water Absorption Index (—); WSI—Water Solubility Index (%) ***Moisture contents (MC) on a mwb are as follows: AFEX ™ switchgrass pellets (12.2%), AFEX ™ switchgrass biomass (22.7%), AFEX ™ corn stover pellets (6.9%), AFEX ™ corn stover biomass (14.3%) **See Abstract: S. Sokhansanj, et al., Biomass Densification - cubing operations and costs for corn stover, Vol. 20(4): 495-499, American Society of Agricultural Engineers (2004) and page 1084 of Laureano-Perez, et al., Understanding Factors that Limit Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Biomass - Characterization of Pretreated Corn Stover; Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 1081-1085 Vol. 121-124 (2005). Conclusion

The AFEX™-CS pellets (e.g., 106) and AFEX™-SG pellets (e.g., 108), had a relatively smooth surface and held together well during handling. The AFEX™ pellets of both the corn stover and switchgrass possess lower porosity, water adsorption index, water activity, and moisture content as compared to the non-pelleted AFEX™ samples. Such properties are an indication of improved storability for the pelleted biomass. Lower porosity, higher bulk density and higher true density of the pellets are also indicative of reduced shipping costs.

The pellets exhibited other desirable properties as shown in Table 1. In particular, the pellets demonstrated a high angle of repose. A pellet's angle of repose is defined as the angle between the horizontal and the plane of contact between two pellets when the upper pellet is just about to slide over the lower. This is also known as angle of friction. Therefore, particles have an expected value of 45 degrees. Both the corn stover pellets and switchgrass pellets tested herein exhibited higher than expected angles of repose of 57.4 and 60.6, respectively, as shown in Table 1. These values are likely related to the pellets' substantially rectangular geometry.

Example 3

The purpose of this experiment was to compare hydrolysis properties of AFEX™-CS pellets as compared with AFEX™-CS biomass (i.e., unpelleted).

Starting Materials

Corn stover (CS) obtained from the same source as described in Example 1 was used. An AFEX™ pretreatment was performed on the CS in the same manner as described in Example 1. Pellets were made according to the method described in Example 2.

Tested samples included 1.7 g of AFEX™-CS biomass, a 1.6 g AFEX™-CS pellet, and a 2.2 g AFEX™-CS soaked in 100 ml amount of de-ionized water at 25° C. for five (5) minutes before hydrolysis to produce a soaked AFEX™-CS pellet.

Procedure

After being placed in a 500 ml beaker, an enzymatic hydrolysis was performed on each sample according to a standard laboratory protocol at one (1) % solids loading. See, for example, Shishir P. S. Chundawat, Balan Venkatesh, Bruce E. Dale, 2005, Effect of particle size based separation of milled corn stover on AFEX™ pretreatment and enzymatic digestibility, Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 96, Issue 2, pp 219-231.

Fifteen Filter Paper Units (FPU) of an enzyme, specifically Spezyme® CP (Genencor®, a Danisco Division, having offices in Rochester, N.Y. whole cellulose, was added. The samples were incubated at 50° C. in a New Brunswick incubator Innova 44, (Edison, N.J.) while being shaken at 150 RPM within the incubator. Observations and samples were taken at 6 hrs, 24 hrs and 72 hrs incubation time.

Results

A visual inspection of the resulting hydrolysates indicates that each of the three samples completely dissolved immediately upon water addition. (FIG. 3B). Therefore, it is apparent that all three samples hydrolyzed to substantially the same extent in substantially the same amount of time.

Approximately two (2) ml samples were taken from the incubator were filtered and run through a Shimadzu high pressure liquid chromatographer (HPLC) Model LC-2010HT w/ELSD-LT to determine glucan and xylan conversions.

FIGS. 3A-3E are images taken at various times of three biomass samples, including AFEX-CS, AFEX-CS pellets, and soaked AFEX-CS pellets. FIGS. 4A and 4B are comparative hydrolysis graphs showing glucan conversions of the samples shown in FIGS. 3A-3E. As can be seen, the glucan conversions remain substantially the same across each sample.

Table 2 shows percent of glucan converted to glucose at various times in each of the samples.

TABLE 2 Percent of Glucan converted to Glucose % glucan % glucan % glucan conversion conversion conversion (to glucose) (to glucose) (to glucose) Biomass type 6 h 24 h 72 h AFEX ™ CS 44.3 61.7 71.4 AFEX ™ CS-Pellet 48.3 65.9 73.7 Soaked AFEX ™ CS- 47.5 64.0 71.3 Pellet

Table 3 shows the percentage of total glucose produced between samplings.

TABLE 3 Percentage of total glucose produced between samplings % total % total % total glucose glucose glucose Biomass type 6 h 24 h 72 h AFEX ™ CS 44.3 17.4 9.7 AFEX ™ CS- 48.4 17.5 7.8 Pellet Soaked AFEX ™ 47.5 16.5 7.3 CS-Pellet

Table 4 shows percentage of total xylan converted to xylose and total xylan in each sample before hydrolysis.

TABLE 4 Percentage of total xylan converted to xylose % xylan % xylan % xylan conversion conversion conversion Biomass (to xylose) (to xylose) (to xylose) Total Type 6 h 24 h 72 h Xylan (g) AFEX ™ CS 16.5 29.7 37.9 0.42 AFEX ™ CS- 24.1 39.6 48.0 0.38 Pellet Soaked 11.8 19.3 23.4 0.72 AFEX ™ CS- Pellet

Table 5 shows the percentage of total xylose produced between samplings.

TABLE 5 Percentage of total xylose produced between samplings % total % total % total xylose xylose xylose Biomass type 6 h 24 h 72 h AFEX ™ CS 16.5 13.2 8.1 AFEX ™ CS- 24.1 15.5 8.4 Pellet Soaked AFEX ™ 11.8 7.5 4.0 CS-Pellet Conclusion

The substantially instantaneous hydrolyzing (e.g., wetting and dispersion) in the AFEX™-CS pellet demonstrates that pelleting of corn stover biomass does not affect hydrolysis. It is likely that other AFEX™ pellets made from other biomass materials will behave in a similar manner. Indeed, as FIG. 3B shows, most of the biomass in each pellet is converted to sugar within six (hrs), which compares favorably with the unpelleted AFEX™-CS biomass sample. Additionally, both pellets (AFEX™-CS pellet and the soaked AFEX™-CS pellet) hydrolyzed to nearly the same extent as the unpelleted sample. This determination was made by observing the lack of solids remaining after 72 hours (FIG. 3E). Since the three samples had virtually the same conversions, the test was concluded at 72 hours. These results are confirmed in FIGS. 4A and 4B.

Example 4

This test was performed to determine the comparative hardness between AFEX™-CS pellets and non AFEX™-CS pellets.

Starting Materials

CS obtained from the same source as described in Example 1 was used in this testing. Some of the CS was subjected to the AFEX™ pretreatment as described in Example 1. No additional treatment was performed on the AFEX™-pretreated biomass prior to pelleting, including no added binder and no artificial drying (any evaporation occurring in open air at room temperature is considered to be negligible during the course of the testing procedure).

The remaining portion underwent a different (non-AFEX™) procedure, which included adding approximately five (5) to ten (10) g of water per 100 g of CS to bring the moisture content of the biomass to 15% wet basis (wb) prior to pelleting.

Lodgepole pine biomass from the Driftmer Engineering Laboratory at the University of Georgia (Athens, Ga.) also underwent a similar non-AFEX™ procedure, and because the biomass moisture was measured to be greater than 15%, it was put in a dryer until it was at 12-15% moisture.

Ten (10) AFEX™-CS pellets and ten (10) non-AFEX™-CS pellets were formed with a Yankee Pellet Machine Model 400 (Yankee Pellet Mill, Effingham, N.H.), a centrifugal die mill which produces pellets currently considered the industry standard. Ten (10) non-AFEX™ pine pellets were pelletized using a California Pellet Machine, Model CL (CPM, Crawfordsville, Ind.).

Pellets produced on both these machines have a substantially cylindrical shape and are about six (6) mm in diameter. Length can be varied as desired, but is generally more uniform than the device used above in Example 2. For purposes of testing, the pellets were about one (1) inch.

Procedure

The pellets were tested for hardness using a 12T Carver Laboratory Hydraulic Press/Hardness testing apparatus with 400 PSI gauge (Carver, Wabash, Ind.). Specifically, this test measured the amount of force needed to crush each pellet beyond its yield strength. The determination of “yield strength” was made through trained observation and “feel.” Specifically, pressure was applied to each pellet until the tester observed and felt the pellet “give.” Multiple pellets were tested and an average hardness, i.e., pressure required to cause pellets to yield (Table 6), and average deformation (Table 7) were determined.

Results

Comparative hardness results are shown below in Table 6:

TABLE 6 Comparative Pellet Hardness for AFEX ™ and non-AFEX ™ pellets non-AFEX ™ AFEX ™ pellets Non-AFEX ™ pellets (psi) (psi) Pine pellet 140 120 125 130 120 125 70 100 75 100 140 90 90 140 90 70 110 110 120 130 130 70 130 75 90 120 80 Measurements of the final diameter of each pellet after it “gave” were also made. These measurements are shown in Table 7. (Note that the data is randomized as compared with Table 6).

TABLE 7 Comparative Pellet Deformation for AFEX ™ and non-AFEX ™ Pellet (initial diameter: 6 mm) non-AFEX ™ Non-AFEX ™ CS pellets AFEX ™ pellets Pine pellet (mm) CS (mm) (mm) 5.26 4.66 5.08 4.67 5.28 5.07 4.96 5.28 5.13 4.84 4.98 5.1 5.2 4.73 5.28 5.08 5.18 4.59 4.76 5 4.75 4.15 5.12 4.61 5.39 5.36 4.98

The untreated, binder-added corn stover pellets average yield point was 98 psi+25 psi. The AFEX™, no binder added corn stover pellets average yield point was 119 psi+20 psi, and the non-AFEX™ binder-added pine pellet average yield point was 98 psi+23 psi.

All cylindrical pellets had a beginning diameter of 6.00 mm. The untreated, binder-added corn stover pellets average deformation at yield was 1.06 mm+0.36 mm. The AFEX™, no binder added corn stover pellets average deformation at yield was 0.95 mm+0.24 mm, and the non-AFEX™, binder-added pine pellet average deformation at yield was 1.06 mm+0.23 mm.

Conclusion

The AFEX™ pellets showed greater durability as compared to non-AFEX™ pellets. AFEX™ pellet quality is also more consistent than the non-AFEX™ pellets. As such, it is expected that any given AFEX™ pellet is less likely to be deformed or disfigured (not a cylindrical shape) as compared with a non-AFEX™ pellet.

Example 5

This test was performed to determine the bulk density of AFEX™-CS pellets as compared to non-AFEX™ CS pellets.

AFEX™-CS pellets and non-AFEX™-CS produced according to the method described in Example 4 (about six (6) mm in diameter and about one (1) inch in length) were added to a 500 ml beaker and weighed.

The non-AFEX™ CS pellets had a bulk density of about 36 lb/ft³ (553 g/L), while the AFEX™-CS pellets had a bulk density of about bout 38 lb/ft³ (578 g/L).

As this preliminary test indicates, the AFEX™-CS pellets showed a higher bulk density than the non-AFEX™ CS pellets. This is likely due to their smooth non-flaky outer surface (which also is expected to improve their flowability), as compared to the rough flaky outer surface of the non-AFEX™ pellets. It is expected that a test performed on a larger scale would demonstrate an even greater difference in bulk density. Likely, the edge effects caused by the small size of the container were a significant factor in this preliminary testing.

It is also possible that pellets which are longer than the one (1) inch pellets may weigh each other down to create a higher mass at a higher density. Alternatively, shorter pellets may pack better. Additional testing (including in larger containers) will be performed to optimize pellet size, and therefore, overall bulk density, for a given application.

Example 6

In this testing, various properties of untreated corn stover pellets were compared with AFEX™-pretreated corn stover pellets.

Starting Materials

Corn stover (CS) obtained from the same source as described in Example 1 was used. An AFEX™ pretreatment was performed on the CS in the same manner as described in Example 1. Pellets were made according to the method described in Example 2.

Procedure

Standard procedures were followed to obtain the results shown in Tables 8 and 9. Specifically, Moisture Total: ASTM E871; Ash Content: ASTM D1102; Sulfur Content: ATSM ASTM D4239; Gross Caloric Value at Constant Volume: ASTM E711; Chlorine Content: ASTM D6721; Bulk Density: ASTM E873; Fines (Particles less than 0.32 cm (0.125 in): Twin Peaks Test CH-P-06; Durability Index: Kansas State Method; Sample above 3.8 cm (1.5 in): Twin Peaks Test CH-P-06; Maximum Length: Twin Peaks Test CH-P-06; Diameter, Range: Twin Peaks Test CH-P-05. The tumbling method used to arrive at the durability indices noted herein is known as the “Kansas State Method.” See, for example, http://pelletheat.org/pdfs/StandardSpecificationWithCopyright.pdf.

Results

The results are shown below in Tables 8 and 9:

TABLE 8 Corn Stover Pellets, Untreated MOISTURE AS METHOD UNITS FREE RECEIVED Moisture Total ASTM E871 wt % 12.08 Ash ASTM D1102 wt % 4.13 3.63 Sulfur ASTM D4239 wt % 0.095 0.084 Gross Cal. Value ASTM E711 Btu/lb 8017 (17,638)   7048 (15,506) at Const. (Btu/kg) Chlorine ASTM D6721 mg/kg 4218 3709 Bulk Density ASTM E873 lbs/ft³ 44.08 (706)   (kg/m³) Fines <0.125 TPT CH-P-06 wt % 0.57 in (<0.32 cm) Durability Index Kansas State PDI 97.9 Sample >1.5 TPT CH-P-06 wt % 4 in (3.8 cm) Maximum Length TPT CH-P-06 in (cm) 1.6 (4.1) (Single Pellet) Diameter, Range TPT CH-P-05 in (cm) 0.235-0.241 (0.597-0.612) Diameter, Average TPT CH-P-05 in (cm) 0.239 (0.607) Bag Weight lbs (kg) 3.5 (1.6)

TABLE 9 Corn Stover Pellets, AFEX ™ MOISTURE AS METHOD UNITS FREE RECEIVED Moisture Total ASTM E871 wt % 7.39 Ash ASTM D1102 wt % 4.03 3.73 Sulfur ASTM D4239 wt % 0.087 0.08 Gross Cal. Value ASTM E711 Btu/lb 7977 (17,550)   7388 (16,254) at Const. (Btu/kg) Chlorine ASTM D6721 mg/kg 3484 3226 Bulk Density ASTM E873 lbs/ft³ 47.15 (765)   (kg/m³) Fines <0.125 TPT CH-P-06 wt % 0.2 in (<0.32 cm) Durability Index Kansas State PDI 97.9 Sample >1.5 TPT CH-P-06 wt % 3.9 in (3.8 cm) Maximum Length TPT CH-P-06 in (cm) 1.85 (4.7)  (Single Pellet) Diameter, Range TPT CH-P-05 in (cm) 0.232-0.242 (0.589-0.615) Bag Weight lbs (kg) 3.5 (1.6) Conclusion

As the results in Tables 8 and 9 show, the AFEX™ pellet has an increased gross caloric value, i.e., an AFEX™ pellet burns about 4.8% more efficiently due to the presence of less moisture in the AFEX™ pellet as compared with an untreated pellet. Specifically, the caloric increase, non-AFEX™ to AFEX™ was calculated as follows: 7388 Btu/lb−7048 Btu/lb=340 Btu/lb (or 748 Btu/kg); therefore, the % increase, non AFEX™ to AFEX™ is (340 Btu/lb)/(7048 Btu/lb)*100%=4.8%. Additionally, bulk density increased by an average of seven (7)% and there was an approximately 65% reduction in the amount of fines (i.e., broken pieces having a diameter less than 0.125 cm) in an AFEX™ pellet bag weighing about 3.5 lb (1.6 kg), as compared with a pellet bag of untreated corn stover having approximately the same weight.

Additionally, although the “durability indices” between AFEX™ and non-AFEX™ pellets are substantially the same in this testing, the method of testing durability was a simple tumbling experiment (“Kansas State Method”), as compared with the destructive testing described in the above examples. As such, insufficient energy is provided to create the separation required to be able to properly distinguish between the pellets. Regardless, a high durability indice shows that the AFEX™ pellets are suitable for use in the pellet industry.

Example 7

Corn stover (CS) obtained from the same source as described in Example 1 was used. An AFEX™ pretreatment was performed on the CS in the same manner as described in Example 1. Pellets were made according to the method described in Example 2. The various protocols are noted below. Reference to “PAKs” samples refers to particulates made using the ComPAKco machine described in Example 1.

Thermal Properties

Thermal properties (conductivity, diffusivity, and resistivity) were determined with a thermal properties meter (KD2, Decagon Devices, Pullman, Wash.) that utilized the line heat source probe technique (Baghe-Khandan et al., 1981). An amount of the control and AFEX™-pretreated sample were put separately in 500 mL beakers until the beakers were full. The probe of the thermal properties meter was inserted completely into the sample for about 3 minutes, allowing thermal conductivity, diffusivity, and resistivity values to be read on the meter's display. An approximately 1.9 mm diameter hole was drilled in the PAKs sample (which is nearly the diameter of the probe). The probe was inserted and values were read on the display. The ranges of thermal properties are listed in Table 10.

Water Activity

Water activity was measured by using an AW sprint TH 500 water activity meter. A sample was placed in a cup up to a certain level and the lid was placed and closed. The process took about 15 to about 45 minutes for each sample, with the resulting water activity read on the meter's display.

Angle of Repose (AOR°)

Angle of repose was measured by using a Hosokawa powder tester. The sample was fed into the vibrator on the top of the vibrator and the sample made the biomass fall onto a 44 mm diameter circular plate following the method described by Mohsenin (1980). After the biomass piled up a constant triangle, the angle of repose was measured by the angle tester.

Angle of repose of PAKs sample was measured using the angle of repose apparatus. A tank was filled to about the half-way mark with biomass, with efforts made to level the biomass. Thereafter, the box was slowly tilted while the protractor angle was monitored. As soon as the sample began sliding, the angle was noted. Three trials were performed.

Color

Color (L*, a*, and b*) of the samples was determined using a spectrophotometer (Portable model CM 2500d, Minolta Corporation, Ramsey, N.J.), using the L-a-b opposable color scales (Hunter Associates Laboratory, 2002), where L* refers to brightness/darkness, a* refers to redness/greenness, and b* refers to yellowness/blueness of samples.

Moisture Content (% dwb)

Moisture content of the raw, AFEX™-pretreated, and PAKs samples was measured following NREL/TP-510-42621 standard procedure using a laboratory oven (Thelco Precision, Jovan Inc., Wincester, Va.). A sample (m₁) about 5 g was put in an aluminum cup and dried at 105° C. for about 4.5 hrs to reach a constant weight. After cooling in desiccators, the final weight was recorded to the nearest 0.1 mg. Moisture content (% db)=100*(m₁−m₂)/m₂.

Aerated Bulk Density (kg/m³), Packed Bulk Density (kg/m³) and Compressibility (%)

These three properties of the biomaterial were measured by using the Hosokawa powder tester. The sample was fed into the top of a vibrator to distribute the samples into a cup of known volume and weight. The cup was then filled until overflowing, with the overflowing material scraped off. The filled cup was then weighed again, with the difference being the Aerated Bulk Density (ABD).

A cap (ring) was then placed on the cup and the process was repeated again until the cap was filled to the top and the vibration stopped. Manual tapping of the equipment was started at the rate of 1 tap per second until 30 taps were performed. Tapping helped to fill empty spaces in the cup and provided proper alignment of the particles, thus helping to accumulate more of the material into the cup. After the 30 taps, the cap was removed and the overflowing material was scraped off the edges of the cup. The cup was then weighed again. This weight is known as Packed Bulk Density (PBD). Compressibility was calculated as the (Packed Bulk Density−Aerated Bulk Density)/Packed Bulk Density*100. True Density (kg/m³)

The ASAE standard method S269.4 Dec. 1 (2004) for cubes of irregular shape was used. Namely, a representative sample of at least 5 cubes was selected and a thin metal rod was inserted into the cube. The cube was then immersed into molten wax, such that a thin film covered the surface area. The wax-covered cube was allowed to cool. Each cube was weighed in air, and the mass (W1), was recorded. An empty transparent water container (sufficient to accommodate a cube in a plastic bag without being stretched) was then placed on the scale, filled two-thirds with water, and the scale was tared to zero.

Each cube was placed in a 0.03 mm (1.25 mil) plastic bag. A 2 mm (0.06 in.) diameter metal rod with a ring formed at one end was used to control the cube from outside the plastic bag. The neck of the bag was placed through the ring of the rod. With the top of the bag extending above the water surface, the rod was used to control the cube, while submerging it to the bottom of the container. The container was gently agitated by hand to expel air from the bag, allowing it to fit snugly around the cube. The mass of the water and displaced cube, bag and rod (W2) was measured. The cube was then raised in the water column to no less than 50 mm (2 inch.) of the water surface, and the weight was measured immediately.

The true density was calculated as follows: SWi=(W1/W3)*998 kg/m³ Wherein SWi is unit density of test cube, kg/m³ (lb/ft³); W1 is cube mass in air, kg (lb); W2 is mass of water displaced cube, bag and rod, kg (lb); and W3 is W2 minus the mass of water displaced by bag and rod, without the sample cube, when immersed to the depth at which the W2 reading was taken, i.e., kg (lb) 998 kg/m³ (62.3 lb/ft³)=density of water at 21° C. (70° F.).

An air pressure pycnometer was used to calculate the void space. The Micromeritics multivolume Pycnometer and a small cell (125 cm³) provided with the equipment was used for the measurement of the true density of the samples. This unit works on the basis of helium gas replacement where the values are measured in the form of P1 when the knob is in the “prep” position and P2 when the knob is in “test” position measured in psi. True density of the material was calculated using the following formula: True density=m/(V _(cell) −V _(exp)*/((P1−P2)/P2)). Bulk Density (kg/m³)

Bulk densities of biomass were measured following the ASAE standard method S269.4 Dec. 1 (2004). In this method, a cylindrical container, 380 mm (15 in.) in diameter and 495 mm (19.5 in.) high (inside dimensions) was used. The net mass (kg,) of the material was divided by 0.05615 m³ (2.0 ft³) to obtain bulk density in kg/m³ (lb/ft³). The cubes or large pellets, which have more than one half their volume above the top edge of a 2000 mL glass container, were removed, leaving only those cubes or large pellets with more than one half their volume below the top edge of the container in the container. The bulk density was calculated from the mass of biomass that occupied the container.

Porosity (%)

Porosity is a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume. It generally lies between 0-1, or can also be expressed as a percentage between 0-100%. Porosity is calculated by the true volume which can be measured by the Micromeritics multivolume Pycnometer and a small cell (125 cm³) provided with the equipment.

Specific Gravity

Specific gravity of the samples is the ratio of the bulk density of the samples to that of the bulk density of water. The bulk density of the samples measured was expressed as specific gravity in the ratio of the bulk density of the sample to that of 1000 kg/m³.

Water Absorption and Solubility Indices (WAI and WSI)

WAI and WSI were determined by using the following procedure: Approximately 2.5 g of finely ground sample (≈150 μm) was suspended in 30 ml of distilled water in a tarred 50 ml centrifuge tube. The centrifuge tube was placed in a laboratory oven (Thelco precision, Jovan Inc., Winchester, Va.) at 30° C. The sample was stirred intermittently for a period of 30 min, and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant liquid was transferred into an aluminum dish, placed in the oven for 2 hr at 135° C. (AACC method 44-19, 1995), and then desiccated for 20 min before the dry solids of the supernatant were weighed. The mass of the remaining gel was weighed, and WAI (−) was calculated as the ratio of gel mass to the original sample mass. WSI (%), on the other hand, was determined as the ratio of mass of dry solids in the extract to the original sample mass.

Compression Durability

Compression durability was determined per a modified ASAE standard method S269.4 Dec. 1 (2004). As such, instead of the stated 500 g samples, 100 g of Pak samples were tumbled inside a durability tester for approximately 10 min at 50 rev/min. The samples were then sieved through a No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm). The percent of whole pellets or crumbles were calculated. Pellet and crumbles durability is defined as: Pellet durability %=(Mass of pellets after tumbling/Mass of pellets before tumbling)×100 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)

The glass transition temperature (Tg) of the biomass was evaluated using a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) (Q series, TM Model Q200, TA Instruments, New Castle, Del.). The DSC was equipped with an autosampler. The T_(zero) aluminum sample pan of 40 μl was put 2.0-2.2 mg sample and subjected to a heating range of 10 to 150° C. with a heating rate of 5° C./min; this was based on the previous literature on DDGS (Ganesan et al., 2007c and Bhadra et al., 2009). An empty T_(zero) aluminum pan of 40 μl was considered the reference cell. A refrigerated cooling system (RCS40), provided with DSC module, controlled the sample temperature from −40° C. to 400° C. Universal Analyzer software provided by TA instruments (New Castle, Del.) was used to analyze Tg from the thermograms, using the half height integration method (Zhong and Sun, 2005).

TABLE 10 Physical and thermal properties value range Corn stover Switchgrass Properties Control AFEX PAKs Control AFEX PAKs Thermal 0.04-0.05 0.04-0.05 0.09-0.11 0.04-0.05 0.04-0.05 0.09-0.11 conductivity, W/m° C. Thermal 0.22-0.25 0.17-0.25  0.1-0.11 0.19-0.21 0.17-0.26  0.1-0.12 Diffusivity, m²/s Thermal 22.9-23.8 18.3-25.1 11.3-11.5 20.2-22.3 18.5-25.1  9.6-11.8 resistivity, m° C./W Water activity (decimal) 0.149-0.287 0.423-0.777 0.307-0.558 0.149-0.287 0.423-0.777 0.307-0.558 Angle of repose, ° 47.7-50.1 46.0-54.0 67.9-70.7 45.3-48.5 52.8-56.0 70.7-74.6 Color L* 36.7-51.6 2.51-3.28 4.34-21.0 16.5-39.6 1.59-1.82 1.67-22.2 a* 2.41-3.41  1.0-1.20 1.35-4.49 2.2-3.7 0.74-0.8  0.48-4.8  b*  8.9-18.8 1.66-3.34 2.20-7.40  9.0-14.5 1.07-1.66 0.84-9.45 Moisture 6.1-9.8 6.1-9.8 content, % wb Aerated bulk  75-111 136-270 345-383  70-130 131-194 318-462 density, kg/m³ Packed bulk density, kg/m³  89-123 153-296 361-407 106-171 159-225 350-493 Compressibility, %  9.4-18.6  8.8-11.3 4.5-7.2 16.4-33.4 13.7-17.9 6.6-9.1 True density, kg/m³ 832-954 1329-1341 1434-1558 773-886 1287-1463 1434-1558 Bulk density,  66-100  93-109 406-429  76-131 116-138 368-434 kg/m³ Porosity 0.895-0.920 0.910-0.923 0.753-0.798 0.852-0.901 0.890-0.914 0.705-0.816 (decimal) Specific gravity 0.832-0.954 1.329-1.341 1.429-1.585 0.773-0.886 1.287-1.463 1.434-1.558 WAI, %  9.2-10.9 4.6-5.8  4.6-5.6, 6.4-7.8 5.1-6.0 5.1-5.6 WSI 2.1-6.8  8.9-11.2 7.6-8.6 4.4-9.1  8.9-10.1  8.3-10.9 Durability, % 92.6-95.2 78.2-91.1 Glass transition, 79.2-79.9 78.6-79.0 73.5-75.4 80.8-82.7 78.2-82.7 69.6-72.4 ° C. Prairie cord grass Literature Properties Control AFEX PAKs Control Briquettes/pellets Thermal 0.04-0.05 0.04-0.05 0.09-0.11 conductivity, W/m° C. Thermal  0.2-0.23 0.17-0.26 0.11 Diffusivity, m²/s Thermal 20.4-23.4 18.4-27.1 9.1 resistivity, m° C./W Water activity 0.149-0.287 0.423-0.777 0.307-0.558 (decimal) Angle of repose, ° 42.5-52.6 47.6-50.2 70.6-72.2 Color L* 16.5-62.2 1.48-18.7 19.2-20.3 a* 0.025-0.18  0.65-5.2  4.8-4.9 b* 10.2-23.6  1.6-14.9 12.4-13.1 Moisture 6.1-9.8 7.3-15% for CS; content, % wb 9.2-15.1 for SG (Kaliyan et al., 2009) Aerated bulk 108-213 133-252 304-315 91-124 for CS density, kg/m³ (Lam et al., 2007) Packed bulk 132-249 156-280 316-337 Tapped bulk density, kg/m³ density 98-159 for CS (Lam et al., 2007) Compressibility, % 14.5-21.2 10.0-14.9 4.1-4.5 True density, kg/m³  943-1062 1401-1464 1541-1545 1085-1337 for CS 825-1149 for CS; (Mani et al., 2004; 417-1065 for SG Lam et al., 2008); (Kaliyan and 873-1370 for Morey, 2009); 541-852 barley, canola, oat, for pellets from and wheat wheat straw, big straws (Adapa et bluestem, corn al., 2010); 1169-1382 stover, sorghum for wheat stalk straw (Shaw et al., (Theerarattananoon 2009) et al., 2011) Bulk density,  88-182 106-194 408 111-130 for CS 745-1025 for CS; kg/m³ (Mani et al., 2004); 417-825 for SG 103-160 for CS; (Kaliyan and 190-220 for SG Morey, 2009); 434-650 (Kaliyan and for pellets from Morey, 2009); 46-60 wheat straw, big for wheat straw, bluestem, corn big bluestem, corn stover, sorghum stover, sorghum stalk stalk (Theerarattananoon (Theerarattananoon et al., 2011); 726-1015 et al., 2011); 96-247 for pellets for barley, from barley, canola, canola, oat, and oat, and wheat wheat straws (Adapa et al., straws (Adapa et 2010); 813-1011 for al., 2010); 88-118 compacts from for wheat straw barley, canola, oat, (Shaw et al., 2009) and wheat straws (Adapa et al., 2009) Porosity 0.829-0.907 0.861-0.926 0.736-0.791 0.91-0.94 for CS; (decimal) 0.82-0.87 for SG (Lam et al., 2008) Specific gravity 0.943-1.062 1.401-1.464 1.541-1.545 0.62-0.65 for SG (Lam et al., 2007) WAI, % 5.5-5.8 5.0-8.6 3.7-6.2 WSI  7.1-10.4 14.9-16.9  9.3-12.7 Durability, % 87.1-97.3 58-97.3 for CS; 35.6-67.3 for SG (Kaliyan and Morey, 2009); 92.2-98.3 for pellets from wheat straw, big bluestem, corn stover, sorghum stalk (Theerarattananoon et al., 2011); 22-99 for pellets from barley, canola, oat, and wheat straws (Adapa et al., 2010) Glass transition, 80.1-81.9 72.6-74.2 73.8-75.6 75 for CS and SG ° C. (Kaliyan et al., 2009) Results

Moisture content, aerated bulk density, packed bulk density, porosity, and glass transition temperature of the control samples is comparable with literature value. Corn stover control sample used in this study had lower bulk and true densities compared to literature values. Specific gravity of switchgrass control used in this study was higher than that of literature value. True density of corn stover and switchgrass PAKs had higher true density than the literature values of these feedstocks. Bulk density of the CS and SG PAKs were lower than literature values. Durability of CS and SG PAKs were higher than the literature values.

Example 8 (Prophetic)

Samples of biomass, such as switchgrass and prairie cord grass will be collected at various maturities, and corn stover will be collected following grain harvest. Biomass composition will be determined at harvest, during storage in round bales, after initial AFEX™ processing and densification, and after storage of densified pellets. AFEX™ pretreatment will be statistically optimized for hydrolysis and binding properties based on parameters of time, temperature, biomass moisture, and ammonia to biomass ratio. AFEX™ conditions providing at least 90% of glucan conversion and 80% xylan conversion will be used to prepare materials for densification.

Densification will be performed using any suitable method, including the methods used in Examples 2 and 3.

The resulting pellets will be subjected to various environmental conditions to simulate long-term storage, and then evaluated for flowability, compression strength, water solubility, water absorption, etc. Downstream processing characteristics will be evaluated using a standardized set of hydrolysis and fermentation conditions, including separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) vs. simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF). In one embodiment a comparison of these properties will be made between freshly prepared pellets (i.e., within about one (1) month), stored pellets and non-densified biomass.

Example 9 (Prophetic)

AFEX™ pretreatment of prairie cord grass will be statistically optimized for time, temperature, biomass moisture, and ammonia to biomass ratio. A fairly broad range of AFEX™ conditions gives similar hydrolysis results, giving us confidence that there are sets of pretreatment conditions that also enhance binding properties. AFEX™ conditions providing at least 90% of glucan conversion and 80% xylan conversion will be identified and used to prepare materials for densification. We will characterize these pretreated materials for surface properties using various methods developed in our lab (ESCA, Prussian blue staining, SEM), and will correlate those properties with the pellet density and durability.

Example 10 (Prophetic)

Ten (10) kilograms each of corn stover and switchgrass will be subjected to AFEX™ pretreatment. These materials will preferably be chopped and milled into 5 different particle sizes, ranging from 850 microns to 2.5 cm prior to receipt by the supplier.

A ten (10) kg sample of this species will be used to do a statistically-optimized AFEX™ study. The optimal AFEX™ pretreatment conditions will be identified to provide at least 90% of glucan conversion to glucose and 80% xylan conversion to xylose will be identified. These conditions will be used to prepare a 10 kg batch of AFEX™ prairie cord grass, at the varied particle sizes.

It is estimated that each kilogram of AFEX™-pretreated biomass should produce approximately forty (40) of the approximately 2.54×1.59×10.16 cm (about one (1)×0.625×four (4) in) “single-stroke” pellets. Therefore, for each biomass species, 80 AFEX™-pretreated pellets of each of the five biomass particle size should be obtained, for a total of 400 pellets per feedstock to be tested for durability and suitability. These AFEX™-pretreated materials will also be evaluated for their surface properties using various methods (e.g., ESCA, Prussian blue staining, SEM), and correlate those properties with the pellet density.

Example 11 (Prophetic)

Operating variables will be investigated to optimize operating conditions for converting pretreated biomass into densified pellets. These variables include AFEX™ pretreatment conditions, moisture content, particle size, die temperature versus bond strength, rate of compaction versus quality of output, energy usage, existing surface chemistry and variations, compaction ratios and resultant density, and compacted package size and shape. Attrition and wear of mechanical components will also be assessed.

Example 12 (Prophetic)

Biomass pretreated using any known AFEX™ procedure or according to the procedure in Example 1 or with any other appropriate modification of an AFEX™ procedure will be densified using any suitable method, including the methods described in Examples 2 and 3.

The densified biomass will then be subjected to various environmental conditions, including temperature (25 to 40° C.), relative humidity (60 to 90%), consolidation stress (0 to 120 kPa), and storage time (0 to 6 mo). Following storage, physical characteristics will be evaluated as described below:

Flowability may be evaluated with a simple test in which a number of AFEX™-pellets are placed in a container, such as the bed of a truck and tipped to about 45 degrees. A comparison with conventional pellets may be made by noting the time it takes for the pellets to flow out of the container.

Flowability will also be evaluated using Carr Indices. See ASTM D6393. 1999, Standard test method for bulk solids characterization by Carr indices, ASTM Standards, W. Conshohocken. Pa. Flowability is comprehensively defined as the ability of a material to flow un-abruptly under a given environmental condition. The flowability measurement is most often done by Carr Indices, by calculating the total flowability index and total floodability index. Carr, R. L. Jr. 1965, Evaluating flow properties of solids, Chemical Engineering 72(3): 163-168.

A higher value to total flowability index and lower value to total floodability index will yield an ideal material with low or no flow problems. Another way to quantify flowability is by measuring the Jenike Shear Stress properties. See Jenike, A. W. 1964, Storage and flow of Bulletin No. 123, Utah Engineering station, Bulletin of University of Utah. Jenike's method will also be used to determine particle cohesion, yield locus, angle of internal friction, yield strength, and flow function, and particle size distribution. See ASTM D6128. 2000, Standard Test Method for Shear Testing of Bulk Solids Using the Jenike Shear Cell, ASTM Standards, W. Conshohocken. Pa., and ASAE S19.3. 2003, Method of determining and expressing fineness of feed materials by sieving, ASAE Standards. St Joseph, Mich.: ASABE.

Additionally, glucan, xylan, galactan, arabinan, mannan, lignin, ash and fiber levels will be evaluated to determine their effect on storage and flowability behavior. Furthermore, several other physical properties will be measured as indicators of poor flowability (i.e., particle size, particle shape, thermal properties, moisture properties, and color). See Selig, M, et al., 2008, Enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass, Technical report NREL/TP-510-42629; Sluiter, A, B. Hames, R. Ruiz, C. Scarlata, J. Sluiter, and D. Templeton, 2008a, Determination of ash in biomass, Technical report NREL/TP-510-42622; Sluiter, A, B. Hames, R. Ruiz, C. Scarlata, J. Sluiter, D. Templeton, and D. Crocker. 2008b, Determination of structural carbohydrates and lignin in biomass, Technical report NREL/TP-510-42618.

Rheological material properties that affect the ability of biomass to be handled pre- and post-densification will be established. Such properties include, but are not limited to, bulk density, true density, compressibility, relaxation, springback, permeability, unconfined yield strength, and frictional qualities. These properties are a function of the feedstock particle size and distribution, shape factor, moisture condition, and consolidation pressure and time. Since commercial rheological testers are typically designed for use with small grains and fine powders; and consequently, do not accommodate particulate that is greater than ¼ inch in diameter, we will develop new measurement systems for characterizing larger feedstock particles. Systems include compaction and shear cells that can be scaled for various material sizes, integrated with commercial load frames, and operated over a range of consolidation pressures.

Data will be analyzed to determine conditions which lead to improved (or optimized) flowability, using formal statistical methods such as general linear models, regression, response surface analysis, multivariate analysis, and other techniques as appropriate. See Myers, H. R. 1986, Classical and modern regression applications, 2^(nd) edition. Duxbury publications, CA. USA. Draper, N. R., and Smith, H. 1998, Applied Regression Analysis, New York, N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Example 13 (Prophetic)

The impact on downstream processing, such as feedstock pretreatment, densification, and storage on bioconversion efficiency from the integrated AFEX™/densification process will be evaluated. Tests will be carried out using a standardized set of conditions for both enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial fermentation.

At least three types of biomass will be evaluated, namely corn stover, switchgrass, and prairie cord grass. For each of these feedstocks, samples of raw ground biomass, AFEX™-pretreated biomass, and AFEX™-pretreated and densified biomass (before and after storage) will be collected. Thus, 3×4=12 total biomass sample types will be evaluated. Conversion trials will be conducted in 500 ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 48 dry g biomass and 152 ml of 2 M phosphate buffer (pH 4.3). The 24% solids loading rate was selected to simulate industrial conditions. Preliminary trials have shown that AFEX™ pretreated pellets solubilize rapidly upon immersion in water, therefore grinding will not be necessary (See Example 2). At this point the pH should be 4.7-4.9, and will be adjusted to that level if necessary. To prevent bacterial contamination, 12 ml of a 10 mg/ml tetracycline stock solution will be added.

Beyond comparing the three types of feedstocks and four pretreatment combinations, conversion methods, enzyme sources, and enzyme dosage will also be compared as outlined below. Therefore, the nominal enzyme dosage of 15 FPU Spezyme® CP and 64 pNPGU Novozyme®188 per g glucan will be compared, with a more challenging dosage of one third those rates. A similar pair of enzyme dosages will be calculated for the extremophile enzyme source.

Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) will be evaluated. For saccharification, flasks will be incubated for 48 h at 50° C. and 250 rpm in an orbital shaker. Samples will be removed at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 18, 24, 30, 36, and 48 hr. Flasks will then be cooled to 30° C. and inoculated with 2 ml of a 12-18 h culture of a recombinant strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae which possesses pentose-fermenting capabilities grown in a medium containing two (2) g/l glucose and two (2) g/l yeast extract. Flasks will be incubated for an additional 96 h at 30° C. and 150 rpm in an orbital shaker. Samples will be removed at 0, 3, 6, 9, 18, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, and 96 hr during fermentation.

Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) will also be performed to evaluate conversion. The main difference will be that flasks will be dosed with enzyme and immediately inoculated with yeast as noted above, then incubated for 144 hr at 30° C. Samples will be removed at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 18, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 96, 120, and 144 hr. Enzyme and biomass loadings and other conditions will be identical to those listed above.

Additionally, both SHF and SSF, replicating the conditions listed above, except for the enzyme source. Crude enzyme preparations from lignocellulose degrading extremophiles isolated from the Homestake Mine in Lead, S. Dak., now known as the Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory (DUSEL), will be used. See Bang, S., et al, 2008. Biofuels group NSF DUSEL project [abstract]. Homestake DUSEL Spring Workshop. Talk 10. p. 2. These enzymes will be added in appropriate amounts to achieve comparable enzyme dosages to those above.

Samples will be analyzed for carbohydrates, organic acids, and ethanol via HPLC using a Biorad® HPX 87H column and refractive index detector. As noted previously, the AFEX™ process does not produce inhibitors such as furfural and hydroxymethyl furfural, and thus it will not be necessary to measure these. During fermentation, yeast and/or bacterial populations will be measured by hemocytometer or plate counts using potato dextrose agar. Three replications of each saccharification/fermentation will be performed for each treatment. Parameters to be calculated will include rates and yields for both saccharification and fermentation. Results will be averaged and statistically analyzed.

Example 14 (Prophetic)

Techno-economic models will be developed for the AFEX™ pretreatment and densification processes of the pretreatment and densification facility or facilities. These models will be constructed using material and energy balance data collected upon completion of the aforementioned objectives and the general principles of engineering design. Both capital and operating costs will be estimated by the techno-economic model for each process. The feedstock cost will be assigned a value reflective of an informed estimate of its delivered cost. Once the costs are modeled, optimization methods, such as linear programming, will be used to minimize overall costs and determine an optimum capacity for the pretreatment and densification center facilities. The minimum feasible scale will be determined to assess the efficacy of the process for distributed adoption.

A preliminary model of the AFEX™ process will be constructed to interface with the subsequent densification process. Specifically, an AFEX™ pretreatment will be modeled as either a batch or a continuous process, depending upon the origin of the collected data. The capital and operating costs associated with feeding the AFEX™ reactor will be included in the model. AFEX™ reactors will be sized to achieve the desired capacity of pretreated biomass. Heat will be generated in the reactor as ammonia dissolves in the water present in the biomass. Additional heat will be provided by saturated steam at moderate to high pressures, either by direct injection or by indirect contact. Ammonia will be recovered by steam stripping the pretreated biomass using distillation. The bottom stage of the column will produce pretreated biomass that is relatively low in ammonia concentration.

The pretreated biomass may be dried in a rotary dryer prior to compaction in the densification process. Both the ammonia-rich distillate and the volatilized gas from the rotary dryer will be combined and re-pressurized for recycle to the AFEX™ reactor. The amount of ammonia recycle is expected to comprise in excess of 95% of the ammonia needed for pretreatment. The costs of biomass, fresh ammonia feed, steam, and electricity will reflect industry values at the time the techno-economic model is constructed. Capital costs will be based upon the cost of fabrication using materials of construction that are compatible with the ammonia-biomass mixtures. All cost inputs will be adjustable to enable a subsequent sensitivity analysis. This analysis will determine the variables which are likely to result in marked increases in the cost of pretreated biomass.

Subsequently the external costs for the pretreatment and densification (P&D) facility, including transportation, storage, and material handling will be determined. The overall cost-to-benefit ratios for the proposed P&D systems will then be compared to a centralized pretreatment and processing alternative without densification in order to quantify system advantages. It is anticipated that some components, such as transportation costs and material loss, may favor the proposed distributed processing system due to reduced feedstock transportation distance. The additional processing required by the proposed distributed P&D system may increase operating and processing costs at that location, but replace similar processing costs at the centralized processing facility. Additionally, the uniformity and densification of the raw material may yield significant advantages for large-scale material handling, storage and production. Quantifying these potential advantages will be a key outcome of the proposed project.

These studies will optimize the AFEX™ process for both pretreatment and subsequent densification; develop and optimize the densification process for pellet formation; determine physical characteristics of pellets before and after storage; evaluate hydrolysis and fermentation of fresh and stored pellets; and conduct an in-depth economic and energy analysis of the process.

Techno-economic models will be developed for the AFEX™ and densification processes using data collected above. Delivered feedstock costs will be based on informed estimates. Optimization methods (e.g., linear programming) will be used to minimize overall costs and determine an optimum and minimum capacity for the pretreatment & densification facility. The analysis will then compare the regional biomass processing center (RBPC) versus traditional systems without combined pretreatment and densification.

Costs associated with pretreatment and densification of biomass in RBPC will be studied, including optimal and minimal scale of RBPCs; sensitivity analysis to elucidate the variables with greatest impact capital and operating costs; a comparison of decentralized and centralized systems; and a rationale to assist in facility location relative to main biorefinery.

An economic model will be developed to provide decision-making capability to those adopting decentralized pretreatment and densification technology. See, for example, FIG. 6.

The logistics of harvesting, handling, transporting, and storing low bulk density feedstocks is a significant challenge to the bioeconomy. These issues are especially critical for herbaceous feedstocks, which may have low per-acre productivities. For example, biomass that yields 70 gallons of ethanol per ton, baled at a density of 120 kg/m³ would require over 10 times the volume of material for a given volume of ethanol, compared with corn grain. Therefore, biomass densification at distributed locations (to minimize transport of feedstock bales) is critically needed, but conventional extrusion pelleting has proven too costly.

Novel densified biomass products and methods for making and using same are described herein. In one embodiment, an AFEX™ pretreatment is used to produce a tacky biomass which, surprisingly, is easily convertible to a solid briquette or pellet without the use of additional binder. The AFEX™ pellets are also surprisingly at least as dense and demonstrate superior hardness properties as compared with conventional pellets containing added binders.

In one embodiment, pellets comprising more than one type of biomass material (e.g., corn stover, grasses and/or wood, and the like) are provided. In this way, a commodity pelleted biomass product having relatively uniform properties is provided which may be more easily adopted into the biomass processing industry. Such properties may include, but are not limited to, BTU content, sugar content, and so forth.

Any suitable type of densification process may be used to produce products having a variety of sizes and shapes. In one embodiment, the densification process device uses a gear mesh system to compress biomass through a tapering channel between adjacent gear teeth, forming high density pellets. In one embodiment, the system operates at lower temperature, pressure, and energy requirements than comparable pelleting systems. In one embodiment, the compression includes a shaping or extrusion process as described herein.

In one embodiment, the AFEX™ pellets “hold up” better, i.e., are more resistant to physical forces, than non-AFEX™ pellets during shipping, handling and/or storing as compared to densified biomass particulates having fibers which are not pretreated. In one embodiment, the resulting products have an increased flowability as compared with conventional biomass solids, which allow for automated loading and unloading of transport vehicles and storage systems, as well as transport through the processing facility.

In various embodiments, a product is provided comprising at least one densified biomass particulate having a substantially smooth, non-flakey outer surface and containing no added binder, wherein said densified biomass particulate is comprised of a plurality of pretreated lignin-coated plant biomass fibers which contain a trace amount of base from pretreatment of said fibers (such as, for example, about 1% to about 2% of the ammonia used in an ammonia pretreatment).

In one embodiment, the biomass fibers comprise reduced lignin and/or hemicellulose levels in their interior and increased lignin and/or hemicellulose levels on their surfaces as compared with the lignin and/or hemicellulose levels of said fibers prior to the ammonia pretreatment, wherein said surface lignin and/or hemicellulose levels provide a degree of tackiness thereon. In one embodiment, the product further comprises a suitable container to store a plurality of the particulates.

In one embodiment, water and/or steam is added prior to and/or during the pretreatment. In one embodiment, the trace amount of base is from a non-volatile base, such as sodium hydroxide and/or calcium hydroxide. In one embodiment, said base additionally or alternatively comprises ammonia. In one embodiment, the ammonia pretreatment is an ammonia fiber expansion pretreatment (e.g., liquid, gaseous or extractive).

In one embodiment, the fiber interiors contain microscopic pores and a portion of the lignin and/or hemicellulose is present within the microscopic pores. In one embodiment, the biomass fibers are each coated with lignin on their surfaces and at least some of said biomass fibers are also coated with hemicellulose.

Various embodiments can provide for a plurality of densified biomass particulates of a given mass having a higher bulk density than baled, loose or compressed plant biomass of the same given mass. In one embodiment, the particulates are of a given mass and have a bulk density up to 10 times greater than a bulk density of loose plant biomass of the same given mass and/or a bulk density up to 5 times greater than baled plant biomass having the same given mass and/or a bulk density about 2 to about 5 times greater than loose plant biomass of the same given mass which has been compressed to occupy a volume up to 50% less than an original volume.

In one embodiment, said particulate has an increased gross caloric value as compared with a densified biomass particulate containing untreated plant biomass fibers. For example, such a particulate can, in one embodiment, burn about 4.8% more efficiently as compared with a densified biomass particulate containing untreated plant biomass fibers. In various embodiments, a plurality of particulates has the features described herein.

In one embodiment, a given mass of a plurality of densified biomass particulates has a reduced amount of fines as compared with a plurality of densified biomass particulates of the same given mass containing untreated plant biomass fibers.

As noted herein, the particulates are useful in a variety of applications, such as fermentation. In one embodiment, fermentation rates are improved as compared to fermentation rates achieved using non-densified biomass. The particulates are also useful as solid materials, such as in construction. In one embodiment, a solid material is provided having the features described herein.

In one embodiment, a product is provided comprising a plurality of densified biomass particulates, each having a substantially smooth, non-flakey outer surface and each containing a plurality of ammonia pretreated lignin-coated plant biomass fibers, wherein said biomass fibers have an interior and an outer surface and a portion of the lignin is visible on the outer surface. In one embodiment, the product has a bulk density of at least 200 kg/m³ up to about 800 kg/m³ or a bulk density of at least 500 kg/m³ or a bulk density of between about 547.2 kg/m³ up to about 765 kg/m³, including any range or value therebetween.

Although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that any procedure that is calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown. For example, although the process has been discussed using particular types of plant (i.e., lignocellulosic) biomass, any type of plant biomass or other types of biomass or biofuels, such as agricultural biofuels, for example, may be used. This application is intended to cover any adaptations or variations of the present subject matter. Therefore, it is manifestly intended that embodiments of this invention be limited only by the claims and the equivalents thereof. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A product consisting essentially of: at least one densified biomass particulate having a substantially smooth, non-flakey outer surface and containing no added binder, wherein said densified biomass particulate is comprised of a plurality of pretreated lignin-coated plant biomass fibers, wherein said particulate contains only inherent binders present in said plant biomass fibers, and a trace amount of ammonia from a liquid ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) pretreatment, a gaseous AFEX pretreatment or an extractive AFEX pretreatment of said plant biomass fibers.
 2. The product of claim 1 wherein the trace amount of ammonia comprises about 1% to about 2% of ammonia.
 3. The product of claim 1 wherein water and/or steam is added prior to and/or during the pretreatment.
 4. The product of claim 1 wherein the inherent binders include lignin or lignin and hemicellulose, further wherein said biomass fibers comprise reduced lignin or reduced lignin and hemicellulose levels in their interior and increased lignin levels or increased lignin and hemicellulose levels on their surfaces as compared with the lignin levels or the lignin and hemicellulose levels of said fibers prior to the pretreatment, wherein said surface lignin or surface lignin and hemicellulose provide a degree of tackiness thereon.
 5. The product of claim 4 wherein the fiber interiors contain microscopic pores and a portion of the lignin or a portion of the lignin and hemicellulose is present within the microscopic pores.
 6. The product of claim 1 wherein at least some of said pretreated lignin-coated plant biomass fibers are also coated with hemicellulose.
 7. The product of claim 1 wherein said densified biomass particulate has an increased resistance to deformation, an increased hardness, an increased resistance to degradation, an improved shelf life, or a combination thereof, as compared with a densified biomass particulate containing added binder.
 8. The product of claim 7 wherein said densified biomass particulate is at least 21% harder with at least 20% less variability in hardness as compared to the densified biomass particulate containing added binder.
 9. The product of claim 8 wherein said densified biomass particulate has a substantially cubic shape, a substantially rectangular shape or a substantially cylindrical shape.
 10. The product of claim 1 wherein said biomass fibers are corn stover fibers, switchgrass fibers, prairie cord grass fibers, or combinations thereof.
 11. The product of claim 1 comprising a plurality of densified biomass particulates of a given mass having a higher bulk density than baled, loose or compressed plant biomass of the same given mass.
 12. The product of claim 1 comprising a plurality of densified biomass particulates of a given number, wherein said densified biomass particulates have an increased flowability, a higher bulk density, or a combination thereof, as compared with a plurality of densified plant biomass particulates of the same given number containing added binder.
 13. The product of claim 1 comprising a plurality of densified biomass particulates of a given mass having a bulk density up to 10 times greater than a bulk density of loose plant biomass of the same given mass.
 14. The product of claim 1 comprising a plurality of densified biomass particulates of a given mass having a bulk density up to 5 times greater than baled plant biomass having the same given mass.
 15. The product of claim 1 comprising a plurality of densified biomass particulates of a given mass having a bulk density about 2 to about 5 times greater than loose plant biomass of the same given mass which has been compressed to occupy a volume up to 50% less than an original volume.
 16. The product of claim 1 wherein said densified biomass particulate has an increased gross caloric value as compared with a densified biomass particulate containing untreated plant biomass fibers.
 17. The product of claim 1 wherein a given mass of a plurality of densified biomass particulates has a reduced amount of fines as compared with a plurality of densified biomass particulates of the same given mass containing untreated plant biomass fibers.
 18. The product of claim 1 wherein said densified biomass particulate is subject to fermentation.
 19. The product of claim 18 wherein said densified biomass particulate is configured to be fermented to produce a sugar-containing stream, wherein fermentation rates are improved as compared to fermentation rates achieved using non-densified plant biomass.
 20. The product of claim 1 further comprising a container to store a plurality of said densified biomass particulates.
 21. A solid material consisting essentially of: at least one densified biomass particulate having a substantially smooth, non-flakey outer surface, wherein said densified biomass particulate is comprised of a plurality of pretreated lignin-coated plant biomass fibers, wherein said particulate contains only inherent binders present in said plant biomass fibers, and a trace amount of ammonia from a liquid ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) pretreatment, a gaseous AFEX pretreatment or an extractive AFEX pretreatment of said plant biomass fibers, wherein said solid material is a component of a solid construction material.
 22. The solid material of claim 21 wherein said densified biomass particulate has a substantially cubic shape, a substantially rectangular shape or a substantially cylindrical shape.
 23. The solid material of claim 22 wherein said densified biomass particulate is at least 21% harder with at least 20% less variability in hardness as compared to a densified biomass particulate containing binder.
 24. A product consisting essentially of: a plurality of densified biomass particulates, each having a substantially smooth, non-flakey outer surface and containing a plurality of ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) pretreated plant biomass fibers and a trace amount of ammonia, wherein said particulates contain only inherent binders present in said plant biomass fibers, including lignin, and, wherein said plant biomass fibers have an interior and an outer surface, wherein a portion of the lignin is visible on the outer surface.
 25. The solid material of claim 24 wherein the AFEX pretreatment comprises a liquid ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) pretreatment, a gaseous AFEX pretreatment or an extractive AFEX pretreatment.
 26. The product of claim 25 wherein said densified biomass particulates have a bulk density from about 200 kg/m³ to about 800 kg/m³.
 27. The product of claim 25 wherein said densified biomass particulates have a bulk density of at least 500 kg/m³.
 28. The product of claim 25 wherein said densified biomass particulates have a bulk density from about 547.2 kg/m³ to about 765 kg/m³.
 29. The product of claim 25 wherein said biomass fibers comprise corn stover fibers, switchgrass fibers, prairie cord grass fibers, or combinations thereof.
 30. The solid material of claim 21 wherein the inherent binders include lignin or lignin and hemicellulose.
 31. The product of claim 25 wherein the inherent binders further include hemicellulose.
 32. The product of claim 1 wherein the plant biomass is a monocot or dicot. 